                 The Oxford Guide to English Usage

 CONTENTS Table of Contents
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  Title Page    TITLE

  Edition Notice    EDITION

  Notices    NOTICES

  Table of Contents    CONTENTS

  Introduction    FRONT_1

  Grammatical Terms Used in This Book    FRONT_2

  Abbreviations    FRONT_3

  Word Formation    1.0
  abbreviations    1.1
  -ability and -ibility    1.2
  -able and -ible    1.3
  ae and oe    1.4
  American spelling    1.5
  ante- and anti-    1.6
  -ant or ant    1.7
  a or an    1.8
  -ative or -ive    1.9
  by- prefix    1.10
  c and ck    1.11
  capital or small initials    1.12
  -cede or -ceed    1.13
  -ce or -se    1.14
  co- prefix    1.15
  doubling of final consonant    1.16
  dropping of silent -e    1.17
  -efy or -ify    1.18
  -ei or -ie-    1.19
  en- or in-    1.20
  -er and -est    1.21
  -erous or -rous    1.22
  final vowels before suffixes    1.23
  for- and fore-    1.24
  f to v    1.25
  -ful suffix    1.26
  hyphens    1.27
  -ified or -yfied    1.28
  in- or un-    1.29
  i to y    1.30
  -ize and -ise    1.31
  l and ll    1.32
  -ly    1.33
  -ness    1.34
  -or and -er    1.35
  -oul-    1.36
  -our or -or    1.37
  past of verbs, formation of    1.38
  plural formation    1.39
  possessive case    1.40
  -re or -er    1.41
  re- prefix    1.42
  silent final consonants    1.43
  -s suffix    1.44
  -xion or -ction    1.45
  -y, -ey, or -ie nouns    1.46
  -y or -ey adjectives    1.47
  y or i    1.48
  -yse or -yze    1.49
  y to i    1.50
  Difficult and confusable spellings    1.51

  Pronunciation    2.0
  A. General points of pronunciation    2.1
  a    2.2
  -age    2.3
  American pronunciation    2.4
  -arily    2.5
  -ed    2.6
  -edly, -edness    2.7
  -ein(e)    2.8
  -eity    2.9
  -eur    2.10
  g    2.11
  -gm    2.12
  h    2.13
  -ies    2.14
  -ile    2.15
  ng    2.16
  o    2.17
  ough    2.18
  phth    2.19
  pn-, ps-, pt-    2.20
  r    2.21
  reduced forms    2.22
  s, sh, z and zh    2.23
  stress    2.24
  t    2.25
  th    2.26
  u    2.27
  ul    2.28
  urr    2.29
  wh    2.30
  B. Preferred pronunciations    2.31

  Vocabulary    3.0

  Grammar    4.0
  adverbial relative clauses    4.1
  adverbs without -ly    4.2
  article, omission of    4.3
  as, case following    4.4
  as if, as though    4.5
  auxiliary verbs    4.6
  but, case following    4.7
  can and may    4.8
  collective nouns    4.9
  comparison of adjectives and adverbs    4.10
  comparisons    4.11
  compound subject    4.12
  co-ordination    4.13
  correlative conjunctions    4.14
  dare    4.15
  double passive    4.16
  either...or:    4.17
  either (pronoun)    4.18
  gender of indefinite expressions    4.19
  group possessive    4.20
  have    4.21
  he who, she who    4.22
  -ics, nouns in    4.23
  infinitive, present or perfect    4.24
  -ing (gerund and participle)    4.25
  I or me, we or us, etc.    4.26
  I should or I would    4.27
  I who, you who, etc.    4.28
  like    4.29
  -lily adverbs    4.30
  may or might    4.31
  measurement, nouns of    4.32
  need    4.33
  neither...nor    4.34
  neither (pronoun)    4.35
  none (pronoun)    4.36
  ought    4.37
  participles    4.38
  preposition at end    4.39
  quantity, nouns of    4.40
  reflexive pronouns    4.41
  relative clauses    4.42
  shall and will    4.43
  should and would    4.44
  singular or plural    4.45
  split infinitive    4.46
  -s plural or singular    4.47
  subjects joined by (either...) or    4.48
  subjunctive    4.49
  than, case following    4.50
  that (conjunction), omission of    4.51
  that (relative pronoun), omission of    4.52
  there is or there are    4.53
  to    4.54
  unattached phrases    4.55
  used to    4.56
  way, relative clause following    4.57
  were or was    4.58
  we (with phrase following)    4.59
  what (relative pronoun)    4.60
  which or that (relative pronouns)    4.61
  who and whom (interrogative and relative pronouns)    4.62
  who or which (relative pronouns)    4.63
  whose or of which in relative clauses    4.64
  who/whom or that (relative pronouns)    4.65
  you and I or you and me    4.66

  Appendix A.  Principles of Punctuation    A.0
  apostrophe    A.1
  brackets    A.2
  colon    A.3
  comma    A.4
  dash    A.5
  exclamation mark    A.6
  full stop    A.7
  hyphen:    A.8
  parentheses    A.9
  period:    A.10
  question mark    A.11
  quotation marks    A.12
  semicolon    A.13
  square brackets    A.14

  Appendix B.  Clichs and Modish and Inflated Diction    B.0

  Appendix C.  English Overseas    C.0
  1. The United States    C.1
  2. Canada    C.2
  3. Australia and New Zealand    C.3
  4. South Africa    C.4

 FRONT_1 Introduction
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       It is one thing to use language; it is quite another to
       understand how it works.

                   (Anthony Burgess, Joysprick)

    English usage is a subject as wide as the English language itself. By far
    the greater part of usage, however, raises no controversies and poses no
    problems for native speakers of English, just because it is their natural
    idiom. But there are certain limited areas --particular sounds, spellings,
    words, and constructions--about which there arises uncertainty,
    difficulty, or disagreement. The proper aim of a usage guide is to resolve
    these problems, rather than describe the whole of current usage.

    The Oxford Guide to English Usage has this aim. Within the limits just
    indicated, it offers guidance in as clear, concise, and systematic a
    manner as possible. In effecting its aims it makes use of five special
    features, explained below.

    1.  Layout. In the Guide the subject of usage is divided into four fields:
        word formation, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Each field is
        covered by a separate section of the book, and each of the four
        sections has its own alphabetical arrangement of entries. Each entry
        is headed by its title in bold type. All the words that share a
        particular kind of spelling, sound, or construction can therefore be
        treated together.  This makes for both economy and comprehensiveness
        of treatment. Note that Pronunciation is in two parts: A deals with
        the pronunciation of particular letters, or groups of letters, while B
        is an alphabetical list of words whose pronunciation gives trouble.

    2.  Explanation. The explanations given in each entry are intended to be
        simple and straightforward. Where the subject is inevitably slightly
        complicated, they begin by setting out familiar facts as a basis from
        which to untangle the complexities. The explanations take into account
        the approaches developed by modern linguistic analysis, but employ the
        traditional terms of grammar as much as possible. (A glossary of all
        grammatical terms used will be found in FRONT_2.  Technical symbols
        and abbreviations, and the phonetic alphabet, are not used at all.

    3.  Exemplification. Throughout Vocabulary and Grammar and where
        appropriate elsewhere, example sentences are given to illustrate the
        point being discussed. The majority of these are real, rather than
        invented, examples. Many of them have been drawn from the works of
        some of the best twentieth-century writers (many equally good writers
        happen not to have been quoted). Even informal or substandard usage
        has been illustrated in this way; such examples frequently come from
        speeches put into the mouths of characters in novels, and hence no
        censure of the style of the author is implied. The aim is to
        illustrate the varieties of usage and to display the best, thereby
        making it more memorable than a mere collection of lapses and
        solecisms would be able to do.

    4.  Recommendation. Recommendations are clearly set out. The blob  is
        used in the most clear-cut cases where a warning, restriction, or
        prohibition is stated. The square  is occasionally employed where no
        restriction needs to be enforced. The emphasis of the recommendations
        is on the degree of acceptability in standard English of a particular
        use, rather than on a dogmatic distinction of right and wrong. Much
        that is sometimes condemned as 'bad English' is better regarded as
        appropriate in informal contexts but inappropriate in formal ones. The
        appropriateness of usage to context is indicated by the fairly rough
        categories 'formal' and 'informal', 'standard', 'regional', and
        'non-standard', 'jocular', and so on. Some of the ways in which
        American usage differs from British are pointed out.

    5.  Reference. Ease of access to the entry sought by the user is a
        priority of the Guide. The division into four sections, explained
        above, means that (roughly speaking) only a quarter of the total range
        of pages need be looked through in order to find a particular entry.
        Within each section there are many cross-references to other entries;
        hypertext links are provided for these entries.

        In addition to the four main sections described at 1 above, the Guide
        has three appendices: A is an outline of the principles of
        punctuation; B lists some of the cliches and overworked diction most
        widely disliked at present; and C gives a brief description of the
        characteristics of the five major overseas varieties of English.

    Concise as it is, the Guide may be found by individual users to cover some
    ground that is already familiar and some that they consider it unnecessary
    to know about. It is impossible for an entry (especially in the field of
    grammar) not to include more facts than are strictly part of the question
    which the entry is designed to answer. Language is a closely woven,
    seamless fabric, not a set of building blocks or pigeon-holes, capable of
    independent treatment; hence there are bound to be some redundancies and
    some overlap between different entries. Moreover, every user has a
    different degree of knowledge and interest. It is the compiler's hope,
    however, that all will be instructed and enriched by any incidental gains
    in understanding of the language that the use of this Guide may afford.

 FRONT_2 Grammatical Terms Used in This Book
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    absolute  used independently of its customary  grammatical relationship or
              construction, e.g. Weather permitting, I will come.

    acronym   a word formed from the initial letters of other words, e.g.
              NATO.

    active    applied to a verb whose subject is also the source of the action
              of the verb, e.g. We saw him; opposite of passive.

    adjective a word that names an attribute, used to describe a noun or
              pronoun, e.g. small child, it is small.

    adverb    a word that modifies an adjective, verb, or another adverb,
              expressing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner,
              cause, degree, etc.,  e.g. gently, accordingly, now, here, why.

    agent noun
              a noun denoting the doer of an action  e.g. builder.

    agent suffix
              a suffix added to a verb to form an  agent noun, e.g. -er.

    agree     to have the same grammatical number,  gender, case, or person as
              another word.

    analogy   the formation of a word, derivative, or construction in
              imitation of an existing word or pattern.

    animate   denoting a living being.

    antecedent
              a noun or phrase to which a relative  pronoun refers back.

    antepenultimate
              last but two.

    antonym   a word of contrary meaning to another.

    apposition
              the placing of a word, especially a noun, syntactically parallel
              to another, e.g. William the Conqueror.

    article   a/an (indefinite article) or the (definite article).

    attributive
              designating a noun, adjective, or phrase expressing an
              attribute, characteristically preceding  the word it qualifies,
              e.g. old in the old dog; opposite of predicative.

    auxiliary verb
              a verb used in forming tenses, moods, and voices of other verbs.

    case      the form (subjective, objective, or possessive) of a noun or
              pronoun, expressing relation to some other word.

    clause    a distinct part of a sentence including a subject (sometimes by
              implication) and predicate.

    collective noun
              a singular noun denoting many individuals; see "collective
              nouns" in topic 4.9

    collocation
              an expression consisting of two (or more) words frequently
              juxtaposed, especially adjective + noun.

    comparative
              the form of an adjective or adverb expressing a higher degree of
              a quality, e.g. braver, worse.

    comparison
              the differentiation of the comparative and superlative degrees
              from the positive (basic) form of an adjective or adverb.

    complement
              a word or words necessary to complete a grammatical
              construction: the complement of a clause, e.g. John is (a)
              thoughtful (man), Solitude makes John thoughtful; of an
              adjective, e.g.  John is glad of your help; of a preposition,
              e.g. I thought of John.

    compound preposition
              a preposition made up of more than one word, e.g.  with regard
              to.

    concord   agreement between words in gender, number, or person, e.g. the
              girl who is here, you who are alive, Those men work.

    conditional
              designating (1) a clause which expresses a condition, or (2) a
              mood of the verb used in the consequential clause of a
              conditional sentence, e.g. (1) If he had come, (2) I should have
              seen him.

    consonant (1) a speech sound in which breath is at least partly
              obstructed, combining with a vowel to form a syllable; (2) a
              letter usually used to represent (1); e.g. ewe is written with
              vowel + consonant + vowel, but is pronounced as consonant (y) +
              vowel (oo).

    co-ordination
              the linking of two or more parts of a compound sentence that are
              equal in importance, e.g.  Adam delved and Eve span.

    correlative co-ordination
              co-ordination by means of pairs of corresponding words regularly
              used together, e.g. either..or.

    countable designating a noun that refers in the singular to one and in the
              plural to more than one, and can be qualified by a, one, every,
              etc. and many, two, three, etc.; opposite of mass (noun).

    diminutive
              denoting a word describing a small, liked, or despised specimen
              of the thing denoted by the corresponding root word, e.g.
              ringlet, Johnny, princeling.

    diphthong see digraph.

    direct object
              the object that expresses the primary object of the action of
              the verb, e.g. He sent a present to his son.

    disyllabic
              having two syllables.

    double passive
              see "double passive" in topic 4.16.

    elide     to omit by elision.

    elision   the omission of a vowel or syllable in pronouncing, e.g. let's.

    ellipsis  the omission from a sentence of words needed to complete a
              construction or sense.

    elliptical
              involving ellipsis.

    feminine  the gender proper to female beings.

    finite    designating (part of) a verb limited by person and number, e.g.
              I am, He comes.

    formal    designating the type of English used publicly for some serious
              purpose, either in writing or in public speeches.

    future     the tense of a verb referring to an event yet to happen: simple
              future, e.g. I shall go; future in the past, referring to an
              event that was yet to happen at a time prior to the time of
              speaking, e.g.  He said he would go.

    gerund    the part of the verb which can be used like a noun, ending in
              -ing, e.g. What is the use of my scolding him?

    govern    (said of a verb or preposition) to have (a noun or pronoun, or a
              case) dependent on it.

    group possessive
              see "double passive" in topic 4.16.

    hard      designating a letter, chiefly c or g, that indicates a guttural
              sound, as in cot or got.

    if-clause a clause introduced by if.

    imperative
              the mood  of a verb expressing command, e.g. Come here!

    inanimate opposite of animate.

    indirect object
              the person or thing affected by the action of the verb but not
              primarily acted upon, e.g. I gave him the book.

    infinitive
              the basic form of a verb that does not indicate a particular
              tense or number or person; the to-infinitive, used with
              preceding to, e.g. I want to know; the bare infinitive, without
              preceding to, e.g. Help me pack.

    inflexion a part of a word, usually a suffix, that expresses grammatical
              relationship, such as number, person, tense, etc.

    informal  designating the type of English used in private conversation,
              personal letters, and popular public communication.

    intransitive
              designating a verb that does not take a direct object, e.g.  I
              must think.

    intrusive r
              see item 2 in topic 2.21

    linking r see "r" in topic 2.21.

    loan-word a word adopted by one language from another.

    main clause
              the principal clause of a sentence.

    masculine the gender proper to male beings.

    mass noun a noun that refers to something regarded as grammatically
              indivisible, treated only as singular, and never qualified by
              those, many, two, three, etc.; opposite of countable noun.

    modal     relating to the mood of a verb; used to express mood.

    mood      form of a verb serving to indicate whether it is to express
              fact, command, permission, wish, etc.

    monosyllabic
              having one syllable.

    nominal   designating a phrase or clause that is used like a noun, e.g.
              What you need is a drink.

    nonce-word
              a word coined for one occasion.

    non-finite
              designating (a part of) a verb not limited by person and number,
              e.g. the infinitive, gerund, or participle.

    non-restrictive
              see relative clauses.

    noun      a word used to denote a person, place, or thing.

    noun phrase
              a phrase functioning within the sentence as a noun, e.g. The one
              over there is mine.

    object    a noun or its equivalent governed by an active transitive verb,
              e.g. I will take that one.

    objective the case of a pronoun typically used when the pronoun is the
              object of a verb or governed by a preposition, e.g. me, him.

    paradigm  the complete pattern of inflexion of a noun, verb, etc.

    participle
              the part of a verb used like an adjective but retaining some
              verbal qualities (tense and government of an object) and also
              used to form compound verb forms:  the present participle ends
              in -ing, the past participle of regular verbs in -ed, e.g. While
              doing her work she had kept the baby amused.

    passive   designating a form of the verb by which the verbal action is
              attributed to the person or thing to whom it is actually
              directed (i.e.  the logical object is the grammatical subject),
              e.g. He was seen by us; opposite of active.

    past      a tense expressing past action or state, e.g. I arrived
              yesterday.

    past perfect
              a tense expressing action already completed prior to the time of
              speaking, e.g. I had arrived by then.

    pejorative
              disparaging, depreciatory.

    penultimate
              last but one.

    perfect   a tense denoting completed action or action viewed in relation
              to the present; e.g. I have finished now; perfect infinitive,
              e.g. He seems to have finished now.

    periphrasis
              a roundabout way of expressing something.

    person    one of the three classes of personal pronouns or verb-forms,
              denoting the person speaking (first person), the person spoken
              to (second person), and the person or thing spoken about (third
              person).

    phrasal verb
              an expression consisting of a verb and an adverb (and
              preposition), e.g. break down, look forward to.

    phrase    a group of words without a predicate, functioning like an
              adjective, adverb, or noun.

    plural    denoting more than one.

    polysyllabic
              having more than one syllable.

    possessive
              the case of a noun or a pronoun indicating possession, e.g.
              John's; possessive pronoun, e.g. my, his.

    predicate the part of a clause consisting of what is said of the subject,
              including verb + complement or object.

    predicative
              designating (especially) an adjective that forms part or the
              whole of the predicate, e.g. The dog is old.

    prefix    a verbal element placed at the beginning of a word to qualify
              its meaning, e.g. ex-, non-.

    preposition
              a word governing a noun or pronoun, expressing the relation of
              the latter to other words, e.g.  seated at the table.

    prepositional phrase
              a phrase consisting of a preposition and its complement, e.g. I
              am surprised at your reaction.

    present   a tense expressing action now going on or habitually performed
              in past and future, e.g. He commutes daily.

    pronoun   a word used instead of a noun to designate (without naming) a
              person or thing already known or indefinite, e.g. I, you, he,
              etc., anyone, something, etc.

    proper name
              a name used to designate an individual person, animal, town,
              ship, etc.

    qualify   (of an adjective or adverb) to attribute some quality to (a noun
              or adjective/verb).

    reflexive implying the subject's action on himself or itself; reflexive
              pronoun e.g. myself, yourself, etc.

    relative  see "relative clauses" in topic 4.42.

    restrictive
              see relative clauses

    semivowel a sound intermediate between vowel and consonant, e.g.  the
              sound of y and w.

    sentence adverb
              an adverb that qualifies or comments on the whole sentence, not
              one of the elements in it, e.g. Unfortunately, he missed his
              train.

    simple future
              see future

    singular  denoting a single person or thing.

    soft      designating a letter, chiefly c or g, that indicates a sibilant
              sound, as in city or germ.

    split infinitive
              see "split infinitive" in topic 4.46.

    stem      the essential part of a word to which inflexions and other
              suffixes are added, e.g. unlimited.

    stress    the especially heavy vocal emphasis falling on one (the
              stressed) syllable of a word more than on the others.

    subject   the element in a clause (usually a noun or its equivalent) about
              which something is predicated (the latter is the predicate).

    subjective
              the case of a pronoun typically used when the pronoun is the
              subject of a clause.

    subjunctive
              the mood of a verb denoting what is imagined, wished, or
              possible, e.g. I insist that it be finished.

    subordinate clause
              a clause dependent on the main clause and functioning like a
              noun, adjective, or adverb within the sentence, e.g. He said
              that you had gone.

    substitute verb
              the verb do used in place of another verb, e.g. 'He likes
              chocolate.' 'Does he?'

    suffix    a verbal element added at the end of a word to form a
              derivative, e.g. -ation, -ing, -itis, -ize.

    superlative
              the form of an adjective or adverb expressing the highest or a
              very high degree of a quality, e.g. bravest, worst.

    synonym   a word identical in sense and use with another.

    transitive
              designating a verb that takes a direct object, e.g. I said
              nothing.

    unreal condition
              (especially in a conditional sentence) a condition which will
              not be or has not been fulfilled.

    unstressed
              designating a word, syllable, or vowel not having stress.

    variant   a form of a word etc. that differs in spelling or pronunciation
              from another (often the main or usual) form.

    verb      a part of speech that predicates.

    vowel     (1) an open speech sound made without audible friction and
              capable of forming a syllable with or without a consonant; (2) a
              letter usually used to represent (1), e.g.  a, e, i, o, u.

    wh-question word
              a convenient term for the interrogative and relative words, most
              beginning with wh: what, when, where, whether, which, who, whom,
              whose, how.

 FRONT_3 Abbreviations
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    Amer.     American

    COD       The Concise Oxford Dictionary (edn. 7, Oxford, 1982)

    Hart's Rules.
              Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers (edn. 39, Oxford, 1983)

    MEU       H. W. Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (edn. 2,
              revised by Sir Ernest Gowers, Oxford, 1965)

    NEB       The New English Bible (Oxford and Cambridge, 1970)

    ODWE      The Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors (Oxford, 1981)

    OED       The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1933) and its
              supplementary volumes, A-G (1972); H-N (1976); O-Scz (1982).

    TLS       The Times Literary Supplement

 1.0 Word Formation
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    This section is concerned with the ways in which the forms of English
    words and word elements change or vary. It deals primarily with their
    written form, but in many cases the choice between two or more possible
    written forms is also a choice between the corresponding spoken forms.
    What follows is therefore more than merely a guide to spelling, although
    it is that too. A great part is taken up with guidance on the way in which
    words change when they are inflected (e.g. the possessive case and plural
    of nouns, the past tense and past participle of verbs) or when
    derivational prefixes and suffixes are added (e.g. the adjectival -able
    and -ible suffixes, the adverbial -ly suffix).  Because this is intended
    as a very basic outline, little space has been given to the description of
    the meanings and uses of the inflected and compounded forms of words.
    Instead, the emphasis is on the identification of the correct, or most
    widely acceptable, written form.  Particular attention is given to the
    dropping, doubling, and alteration of letters when derivatives are formed.
    Space has also been given to problems of spelling that are not caused by
    derivation, especially the different ways of spelling the same sound in
    different words (e.g. y or i in cider, cipher, gypsy, pygmy, etc.).  A
    comprehensive coverage of all words requiring hyphens or capitals would
    require more space than is available here. The entries for these two
    subjects attempt only to offer guidelines in certain difficult but
    identifiable cases.  For a fuller treatment the reader is referred to the
    Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors and Hart's Rules for Compositors
    and Readers. Wherever possible, notes are added to indicate where the
    conventions of American spelling differ from those recommended here.

    In cases where there is widespread variation in the spelling of a
    particular word or form, the spelling recommended here is that preferred


 1.1 abbreviations
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    It is usual to indicate an abbreviation by placing a point (full stop)
    after it, e.g.

        H. G. Wells, five miles S. (= south),  B.Litt., Kt., Sun. (=
        Sunday), Jan. (= January), p. 7 (= page 7), ft., in., lb., cm.

    However, no point is necessary:

    1.  With a sequence of capitals alone, e.g. BBC, MA, QC, NNE, BC, AD, PLC
        (and not, of course, with acronyms, e.g.  Aslef, Naafi).

    2.  With the numerical abbreviations 1st, 2nd, etc.

    3.  C, F (of temperature), chemical symbols, and measures of length,
        weight, time, etc. in scientific and technical use.

    4.  Dr, Revd, Mr, Mrs, Ms, Mme, Mlle, St, Hants, Northants, p (= penny or
        pence).

    5.  In words that are colloquial abbreviations, e.g. co-op, demo, recap,
        trad, vac.

 1.2 -ability and -ibility
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    Nouns ending in these suffixes undergo the same changes in the stem as
    adjectives in -able and -ible (see next entry).

 1.3 -able and -ible
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    Words ending in -able generally owe their form to the Latin termination
    -abilis or the Old French -able (or both), and words in -ible to the Latin
    -ibilis.  The suffix -able is also added to words of 'distinctly French or
    English origin' (OED, s.v. -ble), and as a living element to English
    roots.

    A. Words ending in -able. The following alterations are made to the stem:

    1. Silent final -e is dropped (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17).

    Exceptions: words whose stem ends in -ce, -ee, -ge, -le, and the
    following:

    blameable                  rateable
    dyeable                    ropeable
    giveable (but forgivable)  saleable
    hireable                   shareable
    holeable                   sizeable
    likeable                   tameable
    liveable                   tuneable
    nameable                   unshakeable


     Amer. spelling tends to omit -e- in the words above.

    2. Final -y becomes -i- (see "y to i" in topic 1.50).

    Exception: flyable.

    3. A final consonant may be doubled (see "doubling of final consonant" in
    topic 1.16).

    Exceptions:

    inferable                  referable
    preferable                 transferable
       (but conferrable)


    4. Most verbs of more than two syllables ending in -ate drop this ending
    when forming adjectives in -able, e.g.  alienable, calculable,
    demonstrable, etc.  Verbs of two syllables ending in -ate form adjectives
    in -able regularly, e.g. creatable, debatable, dictatable, etc.

    For a list of -able words, see Hart's Rules, pp. 83-4.

    B. Words ending in -ible. These are fewer, since -ible is not a living
    suffix. Below is a list of the commonest.  Almost all form their negative
    in in-, il-, etc., so that the negative form can be inferred from the
    positive in the list below; the exceptions are indicated by (un).

    accessible           edible                 perfectible
    adducible            eligible               permissible
    admissible           exhaustible            persuasible
    audible              expressible            plausible
    avertible            extensible             possible
    collapsible          fallible               reducible
    combustible          (un)feasible           repressible
    compatible           flexible               reproducible
    comprehensible       forcible               resistible
    contemptible         fusible                responsible
    corrigible           gullible               reversible
    corruptible          indelible              risible
    credible             (un)intelligible       sensible
    defensible           irascible              (un)susceptible
    destructible         legible                tangible
    digestible           negligible             vendible
    dirigible            ostensible             vincible
    discernible          perceptible            visible
    divisible

 1.4 ae and oe
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    In words derived from Latin and Greek, these are now always written as
    separate letters, not as ligatures , oe, e.g.  aeon, Caesar, gynaecology;
    diarrhoea, homoeopathy, Oedipus.  The simple e is preferable in several
    words once commonly spelt with ae, oe, especially medieval ( formerly with
    ae) and ecology, ecumenical (formerly with initial oe).

     In Amer. spelling, e replaces ae, oe in many words, e.g. gynecology,
    diarrhea.

 1.5 American spelling
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    Differences between Amer. and British spelling are mentioned at the
    following places:

        "-able and -ible" in topic 1.3;
        "ae and oe" in topic 1.4;
        "-ce or -se" in topic 1.14;
        "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16;
        "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17;
        "hyphens" in topic 1.27;
        "l and ll" in topic 1.32;
        "-oul-" in topic 1.36;
        "-our or -or" in topic 1.37;
        "past of verbs, formation of" in topic 1.38;
        "-re or -er" in topic 1.41;
        "-xion or -ction" in topic 1.45;
        "-yse or -yze" in topic 1.49.

    See also "Difficult and confusable spellings" in topic 1.51 passim.

 1.6 ante- and anti-
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    ante- (from Latin) = 'before'; anti- (from Greek) = 'against, opposite
    to'.

    Note especially antechamber and antitype.

 1.7 -ant or ant
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    -ant is the noun ending, -ent the adjective ending in the following:

    dependant                  dependent
    descendant                 descendent
    pendant                    pendent
    propellant                 propellent


    independent is both adjective and noun; dependence, independence are the
    abstract nouns.

    The following are correct spellings:

    ascendant, -nce, -ncy      relevant, -nce
    attendant, -nce            repellent
    expellent                  superintendent, -ncy
    impellent                  tendency
    intendant, -ncy            transcendent, -ncy

 1.8 a or an
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    A. Before h.

    1.  Where h is aspirated, use a, e.g. a harvest, hero, hope.

    2.  Where h is silent, use an, e.g. an heir, honour, honorarium.

    3.  In words in which the first syllable is unstressed, use a, e.g. a
        historic occasion, a hotel.

     The older usage was not to pronounce h and to write an, but this is now
    almost obsolete.

    B. Before capital letter abbreviations.

    Be guided by the pronunciation.

    1.  Where the abbreviation is pronounced as one or more letter name    s,
        e.g.

             a B road                       a UN resolution
             a PS                           a VIP

        but

             an A road                      an MP
             an H-bomb                      an SOS

    2.  Where the abbreviation is pronounced as a word (an acronym), e.g.

          a RADA student              a SABENA airline typist

        but

          an ACAS official            an OPEC minister

    But where the abbreviation would in speech be expanded to the full word,
    use a or an as appropriate to the latter, e.g. a MS 'a manuscript'.

 1.9 -ative or -ive
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    Correct are:

    (a)     authoritative      qualitative
            interpretative     quantitative

    (b)     assertive          preventive
            exploitive

 1.10 by- prefix
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    'Tending to form one word with the following noun, but a hyphen is still
    frequently found' (ODWE).

    One word: bygone, byline, byname, bypass, bypath, bystander, byway,
    byword; the others (e.g. by-election, by-road) are hyphened.

     Bye (noun) in sport, bye-bye (= good-bye) are the chief words with final
    -e.

 1.11 c and ck
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    Words ending in -c interpose k before suffixes which otherwise would
    indicate a soft c, chiefly -ed, -er, -ing, -y, e.g.:

    bivouacker, -ing           panicky
    colicky                    picnicked, -er, -ing
    frolicked, -ing            plasticky
    mimicked, ing              trafficked, -ing


    Exceptions: arced, -ing, zinced, zincify, zincing.

    Before -ism, -ist, -ity, and -ize c (chiefly occurring in the suffix -ic)
    remains and is pronounced soft, e.g. Anglicism, physicist, domesticity,
    italicize.

 1.12 capital or small initials
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    There are four classes of word that especially give trouble.

    A. Compass points. Use capitals:

    1.  When abbreviated, e.g. NNE for north-north-east.
    2.  When denoting a region, e.g.  unemployment in the North.
    3.  When part of a geographical name with recognized status, e.g.
        Northern Ireland, East Africa, Western Australia.
    4.  In Bridge.

    Otherwise use small initials, e.g. facing (the) south, the wind was south,
    southbound, a southeaster.

    B. Parties, denominations, and organizations.

    'The general rule is: capitalization makes a word more specific and
    limited in its reference: contrast a Christian scientist (man of science)
    and a Christian Scientist (member of the Church of Christ Scientist).'
    (Hart's Rules,  pp. 10-11.)

    So, for example, Conservative, Socialist, Democratic (names of parties);
    Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Congregational; but conservative, socialist,
    democratic (as normal adjectives), catholic sympathies, orthodox views,
    congregational singing.

    C. Words derived from proper names.

    When connection with the proper name is indirect (the meaning associated
    with or suggested by the proper name), use a small initial letter, e.g.

    (nouns) boycott, jersey, mackintosh, quisling;

    (adjectives) herculean (labours), platonic (love), quixotic (temperament);

    (verbs) blarney, bowdlerize, pasteurize.

    When the connection of a derived adjective or verb with a proper name is
    immediate and alive, use a capital, e.g.

    Christian, Platonic (philosophy), Rembrandtesque, Roman;

    Anglicize, Christianize, Russify.

     Adjectives of nationality usually retain the capital even when used in
    transferred senses, e.g. Dutch courage, go Dutch, Russian salad, Turkish
    delight.  The chief exceptions are arabic (numeral), roman (numeral,
    type).

    D. Proprietary names.

    The name of a product or process, if registered as a trade mark, is a
    proprietary name, and should be given a capital initial, e.g.  Araldite,
    Coca-Cola, Marmite, Olivetti, Pyrex, Quaker Oats, Vaseline, Xerox.

 1.13 -cede or -ceed
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    Exceed, proceed, succeed; the other verbs similarly formed have -cede,
    e.g. concede, intercede, recede.  Note also supersede.

 1.14 -ce or -se
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    Advice, device, licence, and practice are nouns; the related verbs are
    spelt with -se: advise, devise, license, practise. Similarly prophecy
    (noun), prophesy (verb).

     Amer. spelling favours licence, practice for both noun and verb; but the
    nouns defence, offence, pretence are spelt with c in Britain, s in
    America.

 1.15 co- prefix
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    Most words with this prefix have no hyphen (even if a vowel, other than o,
    follows the prefix).  Those that have a hyphen are:

    1.  Words with o following, e.g. co-operate (and derivatives; but
        uncooperative), co-opt, co-ordinate (often coordinate in Mathematics;
        also uncoordinated).

    2.  Words in which the hyphen preserves correct syllabication, so aiding
        recognition, e.g. co-latitude, co-religionist, co-respondent
        (distinguished from correspondent).

    3.  Words, especially recent or nonce coinages, in which co- is a living
        prefix meaning 'fellow-', e.g. co-author, co-pilot, co-wife.

 1.16 doubling of final consonant
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    1.  When certain suffixes beginning with a vowel are added to nouns,
        adjectives, adverbs, and verbs, the final consonant of the stem word
        is doubled before the suffix:

        a.  if the preceding vowel is written with a single letter (or single
            letter preceded by qu) and
        b.  if that vowel bears the main stress (hence all monosyllables are
            included).

        So bed, bedding but head, heading; occr, occrred but ffer, ffered;
        beft, beftted but bnefit, bnefited.

        Suffixes which cause this doubling include:

        a.  The verb inflexions -ed, -ing, e.g.

            begged, begging            revved, revving
            equipped, equipping        trek, trekking


        b.  The adjective and adverb suffixes -er, -est, e.g. sadder, saddest.

        c.  Various derivational suffixes, especially -able, -age, -en, -er,
            -ery, -ish, -y, e.g.

            clubbable                  waggery
            tonnage                    priggish
            sadden                     shrubby
            trapper


        Exception: bus makes bused, busing.

    2.  Words of more than one syllable, not stressed on the last syllable, do
        not double the final consonant, unless it is l, when a suffix
        beginning with a vowel is added, e.g.

        biased               gossipy                wainscoted
        blossoming           lettered               wickedest
        combated             pilotage               womanish
        focusing


        Exception: worship makes worshipped, -ing.

        Note that some other words in which the final syllable has a full
        vowel (not obscure e or i), some of which are compounds, also double
        the final consonant, e.g.

        handicap             kidnap                 periwig
        hobnob               leapfrog               sandbag
        horsewhip            nonplus                zigzag
        humbug


         Amer. sometimes kidnaped, kidnaping, worshiped, worshiping.

    3.  Consonants that are never doubled are h, w, x, y.

    4.  When endings beginning with a vowel are added, l is always doubled
        after a single vowel wherever the stress falls, e.g.

        controllable               jeweller
        flannelled                 panelling


        Note also woollen, woolly.

        Exceptions: parallel makes paralleled, -ing; devil makes devilish;
        some (rare) superlatives such as brutalest, loyalest, civil(l)est.

         In Amer. spelling l obeys the same rules as the other consonants
        (except h, w, x, y ), e.g. traveler, marvelous, but compelling, pally.

        Note also Amer. woolen (but woolly).

    5.  A silent final consonant is not doubled. Endings are added as if the
        consonant were pronounced, e.g.

        crocheted, -ing      rendezvouses (third person singular)
        prcised             rendezvousing

 1.17 dropping of silent -e
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    A. When a suffix beginning with a vowel (including -y ) is added to a word
    ending in silent -e ( including e following another vowel), the -e is
    dropped.

    So:

    1.  Before suffixes beginning with e- (i.e. -ed, -er, -ery, -est), e.g.

        braver, bravery, bravest   hoed
        dyed, dyer                 issued
        eeriest                    manoeuvred
        freer, freest              queued


    2.  Before -able, e.g.

        adorable             bribable               manoeuvrable
        analysable           imaginable             usable


        Exceptions:

        a.  Words ending in -ce and -ge retain the e to indicate the softness
            of the consonant, e.g.  bridgeable, peaceable.
        b.  In a number of -able adjectives, e is retained in order to make
            the root word more easily recognizable.  See list on "-able and
            -ible" in topic 1.3
        c.  ee is retained, e.g. agreeable, feeable, foreseeable.
        d.  The few adjectives formed on verbs ending in consonant + -le; e.g.
            handleable.

    3.  Before -age, e.g. cleavage, dotage, linage (number of lines).

        Exceptions: acreage, mileage.

    4.  Before -ing, e.g. centring, fatiguing, housing, manoeuvreing. With
        change of i to y:  dying, lying, etc.  (See "i to y" in topic 1.30).

        Exceptions:

        a.  ee, oe, and ye remain, e.g.

            agreeing             eyeing                 shoeing
            canoeing             fleeing                tiptoeing
            dyeing               hoeing

        b.  blueing, cueing  (gluing, issuing, queuing, etc. are regular).
        c.  ageing (raging, staging, etc.  are regular).
        d.  routeing, singeing, swingeing, tingeing are distinguished from
            routing 'putting to flight', singing, swinging, and tinging
            'tinkling'.

    5.  Before -ish, e.g.

        bluish               nicish                 roguish
        latish               purplish               whitish


        Exception: moreish.

    6.  Before -y, e.g.

        bony                 chancy                 mousy
        caky                 cliquy                 stagy


        Exceptions: See "-y or -ey adjectives" in topic 1.47

    B. When a suffix beginning with a consonant (e.g. -ful, -ling, -ly, -ment,
    -ness, -some) is added to a word ending in silent -e, the -e is retained,
    e.g.

    abridgement          definitely             judgement (judgment
    acknowledgement      fledgeling                often in legal works)
    amazement            houseful               useful
    awesome                                     whiteness


    Exceptions: argument, awful, duly, eerily, eeriness, truly, wholly.

     In Amer. spelling e is dropped after dg and before a suffix beginning
    with a consonant, e.g. fledgling, judgment.

    C. Final silent -e is omitted in Amer. spelling in several words in which
    it is found in British spelling, and so often is final silent -ue in the
    endings -gogue, -logue, e.g.

    ax                   adz                    program
    analog               epilog                 pedagog

 1.18 -efy or -ify
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    The chief words with -efy (-efied, -efication, etc.) are:

    liquefy              rarefy                 torrefy
    obstupefy            rubefy                 tumefy
    putrefy              stupefy


    All the others have -ify etc.  See also "-ified or -yfied" in topic 1.28

 1.19 -ei or -ie-
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    The rule 'i before e except after c' holds good for nearly all words in
    which the vowel-sound is ee, as Aries, hygienic, yield.

    Exceptions where ie follows c are:  prima facie, specie, species,
    superficies.

    Note also friend, adieu, review, view.

    The following words which are, or can be, pronounced with the ee- sound
    have ei:

    caffeine             either                 protein
    casein               forfeit                receipt
    ceiling              heinous                receive
    codeine              inveigle               seise
    conceit              Madeira                seize
    conceive             neither                seizure
    counterfeit          perceive               surfeit
    deceit               peripeteia             weir
    deceive              plebeian               weird

 1.20 en- or in-
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    The following pairs of words can give trouble:

    encrust (verb)             incrustation
    engrain (verb) to dye in   ingrain (adjective) dyed in
      the raw state              the yarn
                               ingrained deeply rooted
    enquire ask                inquire undertake a formal investigation
    enquiry question           inquiry official investigation
    ensure make sure           insure take out insurance (against risk:
                                  note assurance of life)

 1.21 -er and -est
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    These suffixes of comparison may require the following changes in
    spelling:

    1.  Doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in
        topic 1.16).

    2.  Dropping of silent -e (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17).

    3.  Y to i (see "y to i" in topic 1.50).

 1.22 -erous or -rous
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    The ending -erous is normal in adjectives related to nouns ending in -er,
    e.g. murderous, slanderous, thunderous.  The exceptions are:

    ambidextrous         disastrous             monstrous
    cumbrous             leprous                slumbrous
    dextrous             meandrous              wondrous

 1.23 final vowels before suffixes
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    A. For treatment of final -e and -y before suffixes, see "dropping of
    silent -e" in topic 1.17, and "y to i" in topic 1.50.

    B. For treatment of final -o before -s (suffix), see "plural formation" in
    topic 1.39, and "-s suffix" in topic 1.44.

    C. In nearly all other cases, the final vowels -a, -i, -o, and -u are
    unaffected by the addition of suffixes and do not themselves affect the
    suffixes. So:

    bikinied (girls)     mascaraed              (they) rumbaed
    echoed               mustachioed            taxied
    hennaed              radioed
    echoer               skier                  vetoer
    areas                emus                   (he) skis
    cameras              gnus                   taxis
    corgis               (he) rumbas
    echoing              scubaing               taxiing
    radioing             skiing                 vetoing


    Exceptions: idea'd (having ideas); past ski'd from ski (contrast skied
    from sky).

    D. Final - in words taken from French is retained before all suffixes;
    the e of -ed is dropped after it, e.g.

    appliqud            canaps                communiqus
    appliquing          chassing              emigrs
    attachs             clichd                souffls
    cafs

 1.24 for- and fore-
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    The prefix for- means 'away, out, completely, or implies prohibition or
    abstention' (MEU).  Fore- is the same as the ordinary word so spelt, =
    'beforehand, in front'.

    Note especially:

    forbear refrain            forebear ancestor
    forgather                  foreclose
    forgo abstain from         forego (esp. in foregoing (list),
                                  foregone (conclusion)
    forfeit

 1.25 f to v
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    Certain nouns that end in f or f followed by silent e change this f to v
    in some derivatives.  Most are familiar, but with a few derivatives there
    is variation between f and v or uncertainty about which consonant is
    correct; only these are dealt with below.

    beef: plural beeves oxen, beefs kinds of beef.
    calf (young bovine animal): calfish calflike; calves-foot jelly.
    calf (of leg): (enormously)calved having (enormous) calves.
    corf (basket): plural corves.
    dwarf: plural dwarfs.  Dwarves only in J. R. R. Tolkien's writings.
    elf: elfish and elvish are both acceptable;
    elfin but elven.
    handkerchief: plural handkerchiefs.
    hoof: plural usually hoofs, but hooves is commonly found, e.g.
        The useless tool for horses' hooves (Graham Greene);
        Listening for Sebastian's retreating hooves
        (Evelyn Waugh); adjective hoofed or hooved.
    knife: verb knife.
    leaf: leaved having leaves (broad- leaved etc.)
       but leafed as past of leaf (through a book, etc.).
    life: lifelong lasting a lifetime; livelong
       (day, etc., poetic: the i is short);
       the plural of still life is still lifes.
    oaf: plural oafs.
    roof: plural roofs.  Rooves is
       commonly heard and sometimes written, e.g. Several acres of
       bright red rooves(George Orwell). Its written
       use should be avoided.
    scarf (garment): plural scarves;
    scarfed wearing a scarf.
    scarf (joint): plural and verb keep f.
    sheaf: plural sheaves; verb sheaf or
       sheave; sheaved made into a sheaf.
    shelf: plural shelves; shelvy having sandbanks.
    staff: plural staffs but archaic and musical staves.
    turf: plural turfs or turves; verb turf; turfy.
    wharf: plural wharfs or wharves.
    wolf: wolfish of a wolf.

 1.26 -ful suffix
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    The adjectival suffix -ful may require the following changes in spelling:

    1.  Change of y to i (see "y to i" in topic 1.50).

    2.  Simplification of -ll (see "l and ll" in topic 1.32).

 1.27 hyphens
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    A. Hyphens are used to connect words that are more closely linked to each
    other than to the surrounding syntax.  Unfortunately their use is not
    consistent. Some pairs or groups of words are written as a single word
    (e.g. motorway, railwayman), others, despite their equally close bond, as
    separate words (e.g.  motor cycle, pay phone); very similar pairs may be
    found with a hyphen (e.g. motor-cyclist, pay-bed).  There are no hard and
    fast rules that will predict in every case whether a group of words should
    be written as one, with a hyphen, or separately.  Useful lists can be
    found in Hart's Rules, pp. 76-81; numerous individual items are entered in
    ODWE.

    1.  Groups consisting of attributive noun + noun are probably the most
        unpredictable.  It is the nature of English syntax to produce
        limitless numbers of groups of this kind. Such a group generally
        remains written as separate words until it is recognized as a lexical
        item with a special meaning, when it may receive a hyphen. Eventually
        it may be written as one word, but this usually happens when the two
        nouns are monosyllabic and there is no clash between the final letter
        of the first and the first letter of the second.

        This generalization is, however, a very weak guide to what happens in
        practice. Compare, for example, coal tar, coal-face, coalfield; oil
        well, oil-painting, oilfield; blood cell, blood-pressure, bloodstream.

    2.  Nouns derived from phrasal verbs, consisting of verb + adverb, are
        slightly more predictable. They are never written as two words,
        frequently hyphened, and sometimes written as one, e.g. fall-out,
        play-off, set-back, turn-out; feedback, layout, runoff, turnover.
        Phrases consisting of agent-noun in -er + adverb are usually hyphened,
        e.g. picker-up, runner-up; those consisting of gerund in -ing + adverb
        are usually left as two words, e.g. Your coming back so soon surprised
        me, unless they have become a unit with a special meaning, e.g. Gave
        him a going-over.

    3.  Various collocations which are not hyphened when they play their
        normal part in the sentence are given hyphens when they are
        transferred to attributive position before a noun, e.g.

        a.  adjective + noun: a common-sense argument (but This is common
            sense), an open-air restaurant (but eating in the open air).
        b.  preposition + noun: an out-of-date aircraft (but This is out of
            date), an in-depth interview (but interviewing him in depth).
        c.  participle + adverb: The longed-for departure and Tugged-at leaves
            and whirling branches (Iris Murdoch) (but the departure greatly
            longed for; leaves tugged at by the wind).
        d.  other syntactic groups used attributively, e.g. A tremendous
            wrapping-up-and-throwing-away gesture (J. B.  Priestley); An
            all-but-unbearable mixture (Lynne Reid Banks).

    4.  Collocations of adverb + adjective (or participle) are usually written
        as two words when attributive as well as when predicative, e.g. a less
        interesting topic, an amazingly good performance, but may very
        occasionally take a hyphen to avoid misunderstanding, e.g. Sir Edgar,
        who had heard one or two more-sophisticated rumours (Angus Wilson)
        (this does not mean 'one or two additional sophisticated rumours').

        See also well.

    5.  When two words that form a close collocation but are not normally
        joined by a hyphen enter into combination with another word that
        requires a hyphen, it may be necessary to join them with a hyphen as
        well in order to avoid an awkward or even absurd result, e.g.  natural
        gas needs no hyphen in natural gas pipeline, but natural- gas-producer
        may be preferred to the ambiguous natural gas-producer; crushed ice +
        -making looks odd in crushed ice-making machine, and so
        crushed-ice-making machine may be preferred.  Occasionally a real
        distinction in meaning may be indicated, e.g.  The non-German-speakers
        at the conference used interpreters versus The non-German speakers at
        the conference were all Austrians.  Many people, however, prefer to
        avoid the use of long series of hyphened words.

    6.  A group of words that has been turned into a syntactic unit, often
        behaving as a different part of speech from the words of which it is
        composed, normally has hyphens, e.g. court-martial (verb),
        happy-go-lucky (adjective), good-for-nothing, stick-in-the-mud,
        ne'er-do-well (nouns).

    7.  A hyphen is used to indicate a common second element in all but the
        last word of a list, e.g. two-, three-, or fourfold.

    B. Hyphens are also used within the word to connect a prefix or suffix to
    the stem. With most prefixes and suffixes it is normal to write the whole
    compound as a single word; the use of the hyphen is exceptional, and the
    writing of prefix or suffix and stem as two words virtually unknown.

    The hyphen is used in the following cases:

    1.  After a number of prefixes that are considered to be living formative
        elements, i.e. prefixes that can be freely used to form new compounds:
        ex- (formerly), e.g. ex-President; neo- (denoting a revived movement),
        e.g. neo-Nazism; non-, e.g. non-stick; pro- ( = in favour of), e.g.
        pro-marketeer; self-, e.g. self-destructive.

        Exceptions: Neoplatonism (-ic, etc.); selfsame, unselfconscious.

    2.  After a number of prefixes to aid recognition of the second element,
        e.g. anti-g, or to distinguish the compound from another word
        identically spelt, e.g. un-ionized (as against unionized); see also
        "co- prefix" in topic 1.15, "re- prefix" in topic 1.42.

    3.  Between a prefix ending with a vowel and a stem beginning with the
        same vowel, e.g. de-escalate, pre-empt; see also "co- prefix" in
        topic 1.15, "re- prefix" in topic 1.42.

    4.  Between a prefix and a stem beginning with a capital letter, e.g.
        anti-Darwinian, hyper-Calvinism, Pre-Raphaelite.

    5.  With some living suffixes forming specially coined compounds, e.g.
        Mickey Mouse-like; or still regarded to some extent as full words,
        such as -wise (= as regards -), e.g. Weather-wise we have had a good
        summer.

    6.  With suffixes in irregularly formed compounds, e.g. unget-at-able.

    7.  With the suffix -like after a stem ending in -l, e.g. eel-like, when
        attached to a word of two or more syllables, e.g. cabbage-like, and
        with the suffix -less after a stem ending in double -l, e.g.
        bell-less, will-lessness.

    Note:   In Amer. spelling there is a greater tendency than in British
    spelling to write compounds as one word, rather than hyphened, e.g.
    nonplaying, nonprofit, roundhouse, runback, sandlot.

 1.28 -ified or -yfied
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    -ified is usual, whatever the stem of the preceding element, e.g.

    citified             dandified              townified
    countrified          Frenchified            whiskified


    But ladyfied.

 1.29 in- or un-
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is no comprehensive set of rules governing the choice between these
    two negative prefixes. The following guidelines are offered.  Note that
    in- takes the form of il-, im-, or ir- before initial l, m, or r.

    1.  in- is from Latin and properly belongs to words derived from Latin,
        whereas un-, as a native prefix, has a natural ability to combine with
        any English word.  Hence

        a.  un- may be expected to spread to words originally having in-. This
            has happened when the in- word has developed a sense more specific
            than merely the negative of the stem word:

            unapt                      inept
            unartistic                 inartistic
            unhuman                    inhuman
            unmaterial                 immaterial
            unmoral                    immoral
            unreligious                irreligious
            unsanitary                 insanitary
            unsolvable                 insoluble


        b.  It is always possible, for the sake of a particular effect, for a
            writer to coin a nonce-word with un-:

                A small bullied-looking woman with unabundant brown hair
                (Kingsley Amis)
                Joyce's arithmetic is solid and unnonsensical (Anthony
                Burgess)

    2.  Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing rarely accept in- (while participles
        can of course be formed from verbs like inactivate, indispose, etc.).

        Exception: inexperienced.

    3.  in- seems to be preferred before the prefixes ad-, co- (col-, com-,
        con-, cor-), de-, di(s)-, ex-, per-.

        Important exceptions are:

        unadventurous        uncooperative          undevout
        uncommunicative      undemonstrative        unexceptionabIe
        unconditional        undeniable             unexceptional
        unconscionable       undesirable            unpersuasive
        unconscious          undetectable


    4.  un- is preferred before the prefixes em-, en-, im-, in-, inte(r)-.

    5.  Adjectives ending in -able usually take in- if the stem preceding the
        suffix -able is not, by itself, an English word:

            educable, stem educ-, negative in-
            palpable, stem palp-, negative im-

        Exceptions: unamenable, unamiable, unconscionable.

        They usually take un- if the stem has only one syllable and is an
        English word:

        unbridgeable               unreadable
        unlovable                  unsaleable


        Exceptions: incurable, immovable, impassable (that cannot be
        traversed: impassible = unfeeling).

        But no generalization covers those with a polysyllabic English stem:

        illimitable                undeniable
        invariable                 unmistakable


    Note: Rule 2 overrides rule 3 (e.g. uncomplaining, undisputed,
    unperturbed); rule 3 overrides rule 5 (unconscionable); rule 4 overrides
    rule 5 (unimpressible).

 1.30 i to y
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    When the suffix -ing is added to words (chiefly verbs) that end in -ie, e
    is dropped (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17), and i becomes y,
    e.g.

    dying         lying         tying         vying


    Exceptions: hie, sortie, stymie make hieing, sortieing, stymieing.

 1.31 -ize and -ise
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    -ize should be preferred to -ise as a verbal ending in words in which both
    are in use.

    1.  The choice arises only where the ending is pronounced eyes, not where
        it is ice, iss or eez.  So: precise, promise, expertise, remise.

    2.  The choice applies only to the verbal suffix (of Greek origin), added
        to nouns and adjectives with the sense 'make into, treat with, or act
        in the way of (that which is indicated by the stem word)'.

        Hence are eliminated

        a.  nouns in -ise:

            compromise           exercise               revise
            demise               franchise              surmise
            disguise             merchandise            surprise
            enterprise


        b.  verbs corresponding to a noun which has -is- as a part of the stem
            (e.g. in the syllables -vis-, -cis-, -mis-), or identical with a
            noun in -ise.

            Some of the more common verbs in -ise are:

            advertise            despise                incise
            advise               devise                 merchandise
            apprise              disguise               premise
            arise                emprise                prise (open)
            chastise             enfranchise            revise
            circumcise           enterprise             supervise
            comprise             excise                 surmise
            compromise           exercise               surprise
            demise               improvise              televise


    3.  In most cases, -ize verbs are formed on familiar English stems, e.g.
        authorize, familiarize, symbolize; or with a slight alteration to the
        stem, e.g. agonize, dogmatize, sterilize.  A few words have no such
        immediate stem: aggrandize (cf.  aggrandizement), appetize (cf.
        appetite), baptize (cf. baptism), catechize (cf. catechism), recognize
        (cf. recognition); and capsize.

 1.32 l and ll
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Whether to write a single or double l can be a problem in the following
    cases:

    1.  Where a suffix is added to single final l: see "doubling of final
        consonant" in topic 1.16.

    2.  l is single when it is the last letter of the following verbs:

        annul                enrol                  fulfil
        appal                enthral                instil
        distil               extol


        These double the l before suffixes beginning with a vowel (see
        "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16), but not before -ment:

        annulment            enthralment            distillation
        enrolment            fulfilment             enthralling


         In Amer. spelling l is usually double in all these words except
        annul(ment), extol.

    3.  Final -ll is usually simplified to l before suffixes or word elements
        that begin with a consonant, e.g.

        almighty, almost, etc.  fulfil                 skilful
        chilblain               gratefully             thraldom
        dully                   instalment             wilful

        Exception: Before -ness, -ll remains in dullness, fullness.

         In Amer. spelling ll is usual in skillful, thralldom, willful.

 1.33 -ly
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The suffix -ly is added to words (mainly nouns and adjectives) to form
    adjectives and adverbs, e.g. earth, earthly; part, partly; sad, sadly.
    With certain words one of the following spelling changes may be required:

    1.  If the word ends in double ll, add only -y, e.g. fully, shrilly.

    2.  If the word ends in consonant + le, change e to y, e.g. ably, singly,
        terribly.

        Exception: supplely (distinguished from the noun and verb supply).

    3.  If the word ends in consonant + y, change y to i and add -ly, e.g.
        drily, happily.

        Exceptions: shyly, slyly, spryly, wryly.

    4.  If he word ends in unstressed -ey, change ey to i and add -ly, e.g.
        matily.

    5.  If the word has more than one syllable and ends in -ic, add -ally,
        even if there is no corresponding adjective in -ical, e.g. basically,
        scientifically.

        Exceptions: politicly (from the adjective politic, distinguished from
        politically, from the adjective political), publicly (  not
        publically).

    6.  Final -e is exceptionally dropped before -ly in duly, eerily, truly,
        wholly (palely, puerilely, vilely, etc., are regular).

    7.  Final -y is exceptionally changed to i before -ly in daily, gaily
        (greyly, coyly are regular).

 1.34 -ness
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    As a suffix added to adjectives, it may require the change of y to i: see
    "y to i" in topic 1.50

 1.35 -or and -er
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    These two suffixes, denoting 'one who or that which performs (the action
    of the verb)' are from Latin ( through French) and Old English
    respectively, but their origin is not a sure guide to their distribution.

    1.  -er is the living suffix, forming most newly-coined agent nouns; but
        -or is frequently used with words of Latin origin to coin technical
        terms.

    2.  -er is usual after doubled consonants (except -ss-), after soft c and
        g, after -i-, after ch and sh, and after -er, -graph, -ion, and -iz-,
        e.g.

            chopper, producer, avenger, qualifier, launcher, furnisher,
            discoverer, photographer, executioner, organizer.

        Principal exceptions: counsellor, carburettor, conqueror.

    3.  -or follows -at- to form a suffix -ator, often but not always in words
        related to verbs in -ate, e.g. duplicator, incubator.

        Exception: debater.

        Note: nouns in -olater, as idolater, do not contain the agent suffix.

    4.  No rule can predict whether a given word having -s-, -ss-, or -t-
        (apart from -at-) before the suffix requires -or or -er.  So
        supervisor, compressor, prospector, but adviser, presser, perfecter.
        -tor usually follows -c, unstressed i, and u, e.g. actor, compositor,
        executor; -ter usually follows f, gh, l, r, and s, e.g. drifter,
        fighter, defaulter, exporter, protester; but there are numerous
        exceptions.

    5.  A functional distinction is made between -or and -er in the following:

        accepter one who accepts   acceptor (in scientific use)
        adapter one who adapts     adaptor electrical device
        caster one who casts,      castor beaver; plant giving oil;
           casting machine            sugar (sprinkler); wheel
        censer vessel for incense  censor official
        conveyer one who conveys   conveyor device
        resister one who resists   resistor electrical device
        sailer ship of specified   sailor seaman
           power


    6.  A number of words have -er in normal use but -or in Law:

        abetter                    mortgager (mortgagor)
        accepter                   settler
        granter

 1.36 -oul-
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    In the words mould, moulder, moult, and smoulder, Amer. spelling favours o
    alone instead of ou.

 1.37 -our or -or
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  In agent nouns, only -or occurs as the ending (cf. -or and -er) e.g.
        actor, counsellor.

        Exception: saviour.

    2.  In abstract nouns, -our is usual, e.g. colour, favour, humour. Only
        the following end in -or:

        error                pallor                 terror
        horror               squalor                torpor
        languor              stupor                 tremor
        liquor


         In Amer. English -or is usual in nearly all words in which British
        English has -our (glamour and saviour are the main exceptions).

    3.  Nouns in -our change this to -or before the suffixes -ation, -iferous,
        -ific, -ize, and -ous, e.g.

            coloration, humorous, odoriferous, soporific, vaporize,
            vigorous.

        But -our keeps the u before -able, -er, -ful, -ism, -ist, -ite, and
        -less, e.g.

            armourer, behaviourism, colourful, favourite, honourable,
            labourite, odourless, rigourist.

 1.38 past of verbs, formation of
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A. Regular verbs add -ed for the past tense and past participle, and may
    make the following spelling changes:

    1.  Doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in
        topic 1.16).
    2.  Dropping of silent -e (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17).
    3.  Change of y to i (see "y to i" in topic 1.50).

    Note laid, paid, and said from lay, pay, and say.

    B. A number of verbs vary in their past tense and past participle between
    a regular form and a form with -t (and in some cases a different
    vowel-sound in the stem):

    burn       kneel      leap       smell      spill
    dream      lean       learn      spell      spoil


    The -t form is usual in Received Pronunciation (see Received Pronunciation
    in topic 2.0) and should be written by those who pronounce it. The regular
    form is usual in Amer. English.

    Bereaved is regular when the reference is to the loss of relatives by
    death; bereft is used when the reference is to loss of immaterial
    possessions.

    Cleave is a rare word with two opposite meanings:  (i) = stick; A man . .
    shall cleave unto his wife (Genesis 2:24) (regular).  (ii) = split; past
    tense clave is archaic; clove, cleft, and regular cleaved are all
    permissible, but cleaved is usual in scientific and technical contexts;
    past participle, in fixed expressions, cloven-footed, cloven hoof, cleft
    palate, cleft stick; cleaved is technical, but probably also best used
    outside the fixed expressions.

     Earn is regular. There is no form earnt.

    C. A number of verbs vary in the past participle only between the regular
    form and one ending in -(e)n:

        hew, mow, saw, sew, shear, show, sow, strew, swell.

    In most of these the latter form is to be preferred; in British English it
    is obligatory when the participle is used attributively as an adjective.
    So new-mown hay, a sawn-off (Amer.  sawed-off) shotgun, shorn (not
    sheared) of one's strength, a swollen gland; swollen or swelled head (=
    conceit) is a colloquial exception.

    D. The past tense has -a-, the past participle -u-, in

    begin                shrink                 stink
    drink                sing                   swim
    ring                 sink


     It is an error to use begun, drunk, etc. for the past tense, as if they
    followed clung, flung, spun, etc.

    E. The past tense and past participle of the following verbs can cause
    difficulty:

    abide (by) makes abided
    alight makes alighted
    bet: betted is increasingly common beside bet
    bid (make a bid): bid
    bid (command; say (goodnight, etc.)):
       bid is usual (bade, bidden are archaic)
    broadcast unchanged in past tense and past participle
    chide: chided is now usual (older chid)
    forecast unchanged in past tense and past participle
    hang: hanged is frequent for the capital punishment;
       otherwise only hung
    knit: knitted is usual, but knit is common
       in metaphorical use (he knit his brows)
    light makes past lit, past participle lit
       in predicative use (a fire was lit) but lighted
       attributively (a lighted match)
    quit makes quitted  Amer. quit
    reeve (nautical) makes rove
    rid unchanged in past tense and past participle
    speed makes sped but speeded in the senses
       'cause to go at (a certain) speed' and 'travel
       at illegal or dangerous speed'
    spit makes spat  Amer. spit
    stave (to dent) staved or
    stove; (to ward off) staved
    sweat makes sweated  Amer. sweat
    thrive: thrived is increasingly common beside
       throve, thriven

 1.39 plural formation
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Most nouns simply add -s, e.g.  cats, dogs, horses, cameras.

    A. The regular plural suffix -s is preceded by -e-:

    1.  After sibilant consonants, where ease of pronunciation requires a
        separating vowel, i.e. after

            ch: e.g. benches, coaches, matches (but not conchs, lochs,
            stomachs where the ch has a different sound)
            s: e.g. buses, gases, pluses, yeses (note that single s is not
            doubled)
            sh: e.g. ashes, bushes
            ss: e.g. grasses, successes
            x: e.g. boxes, sphinxes
            z: e.g. buzzes, waltzes (note quizzes with doubling of z)

        Proper names follow the same rule, e.g. the Joneses, the Rogerses, the
        two Charleses.

         -es should not be replaced by an apostrophe, as the Jones'.

    2.  After -y (not preceded by a vowel), which changes to i, e.g. ladies,
        soliloquies, spies.

        Exceptions: proper names, e.g. the Willoughbys, the three Marys; also
        trilbys, lay-bys, standbys, zlotys (Polish currency).

    3.  After -o in certain words:

        bravoes (= ruffians;        haloes                 potatoes
           bravos = shouts          heroes                 salvoes (= dis-
           of 'bravo!')             innuendoes               charges salvos
        buffaloes                   mangoes                  = reservations,
        calicoes                    mementoes                excuses)
        cargoes                     mosquitoes             stuccoes
        dingoes                     mottoes                tomatoes
        dominoes                    Negroes                tornadoes
        echoes                      noes                   torpedoes
        embargoes                   peccadilloes           vetoes
        goes                        porticoes              volcanoes
        grottoes


        Words not in this list add only -s.

        It is helpful to remember that -e- is never inserted:

        a.  when the o is preceded by another vowel, e.g.  cuckoos, embryos,
            ratios.
        b.  when the word is an abbreviation, e.g. hippos, kilos.
        c.  with proper names, e.g. Lotharios, Figaros, the Munros.

    4.  With words which change final f to v (see "f to v" in topic 1.25),
        e.g. calves, scarves.

    B. Plural of compound nouns.

    1.  Compounds made up of a noun followed by an adjective, a prepositional
        phrase, or an adverb attach -s to the noun, e.g.

        (a)    courts martial      heirs presumptive
               cousins-german      poets laureate

        But brigadier-generals, lieutenant-colonels, sergeant-majors.

        (b)    men-of-war          tugs of war
               sons-in-law

        (c)    hangers-on          whippers-in
               runners-up


        Note: In informal usage -s is not infrequently transferred to the
        second element of compounds of type (a).

    2.  Compounds which contain no noun, or in which the noun element is now
        disguised, add -s at the end. So also do nouns formed from phrasal
        verbs and compounds ending in -ful, e.g.

        (a)    ne'er-do-wells      will-o'-the-wisps
               forget-me-nots

        (b)    pullovers           set-ups
               run-throughs

        (c)    handfuls            spoonfuls


    3.  Compounds containing man or woman make both elements plural, as
        usually do those made up of two words linked by and, e.g.

        (a)    gentlemen ushers    women doctors
               menservants

        (b)    pros and cons       ups and downs


    C. The plural of the following nouns with a singular in -s is unchanged:

    biceps               means                  species
    congeries            mews                   superficies
    forceps              series                 thrips
    innings


    The following are mass nouns, not plurals:

    bona fides (= 'good faith'),   kudos


     The singulars bona-fide (as a noun; there is an adjective bona-fide),
    congery, kudo, sometimes seen, are erroneous.

    D. Plural of nouns of foreign origin. The terminations that may form their
    plurals according to a foreign pattern are given in alphabetical order
    below; to each is added a list of the words that normally follow this
    pattern. It is recommended that the regular plural (in -s) should be used
    for all the other words with these terminations, even though some are
    found with either type of plural.

    1.  -a (Latin and Greek) becomes -ae:

        alga                 lamina                 nebula
        alumna               larva                  papilla


        Note: formula has -ae in mathematical and scientific use.

    2.  -eau, -eu (French) add -x:

        beau                 chateau                plateau
        bureau               milieu                 tableau


    3.  -ex, -ix (Latin) become -ices:

        appendix             cortex                 matrix
        calix                helix                  radix


        Note: index, vortex have -ices in mathematical and scientific use
        (otherwise regular).

    4.  -is (Greek and Latin) becomes -es (pronounced eez):

        amanuensis           crisis                 oasis
        analysis             ellipsis               parenthesis
        antithesis           hypothesis             synopsis
        axis                 metamorphosis          thesis
        basis


    5.  -o (Italian) becomes -i:

        concerto grosso (concerti grossi)
        graffito                   ripieno
        maestro                    virtuoso


        Note: solo and soprano sometimes have -i in technical contexts
        (otherwise regular).

    6.  -on (Greek) becomes -a:

        criterion            parhelion              phenomenon


        Note: The plural of automaton is in -a when used collectively
        (otherwise regular).

    7.    -s (French) is unchanged in the plural (Note: it is silent in the
        singular, but pronounced -z in the plural):

        chamois              corps                  fracas
        chassis              faux pas               patois


        Also (not a noun in French): rendezvous.

    8.  -um (Latin) becomes -a:

        addendum             datum                  maximum
        bacterium            desideratum            minimum
        candelabrum          dictum                 quantum
        compendium           effluvium              scholium
        corrigendum          emporium               spectrum
        cranium              epithalamium           speculum
        crematorium          erratum                stratum
        curriculum


        Note: medium in scientific use, and in the sense 'a means of
        communication' (as mass medium ) has plural in -a; the collective
        plural of memorandum 'things to be noted' is in -a; rostrum has -a in
        technical use; otherwise these words are regular.  In the technical
        sense 'starting-point' datum has a regular plural.

    9.  -us (Latin) becomes -i:

        alumnus              fungus                 nucleus
        bacillus             gladiolus              radius
        bronchus             locus                  stimulus
        cactus               narcissus              terminus
        calculus


        Note: focus has plural in -i in scientific use, but otherwise is
        regular; genius has plural genii when used to mean 'guardian spirit',
        but in its usual sense is regular; corpus, genus, opus become corpora,
        genera, opera.

     The following words of foreign origin are plural nouns; they should
    normally not be construed as singulars (see also as separate entries in
    Vocabulary):

    bacteria             graffiti               phenomena
    candelabra           insignia               regalia
    criteria             media                  strata
    data


    E. There is no need to use an apostrophe before -s:

    1.  After figures: the 1890s.
    2.  After abbreviations: MPs, SOSs.

    But it is needed in: dot the i's and cross the t's, fair do's, do's and
    don'ts.

 1.40 possessive case
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    To form the possessive:

    1.  Normally, add -'s in the singular and -s' (i.e. apostrophe following
        the plural suffix -s) in the plural, e.g.

        Bill's book                the Johnsons' dog
        his master's voice         a girls' school


        Nouns that do not form plural in -s add -'s to the plural form, e.g.

        children's books           women's liberation


    2.  Nouns ending in s add 's for the singular possessive, e.g.

        boss's                     Hicks's
        Burns's                    St James's Square
        Charles's                  Tess's
        Father Christmas's         Thomas's


        To form the plural possessive, they add an apostrophe to the s of the
        plural in the normal way, e.g.

        bosses'                    the octopuses' tentacles
        the Joneses' dog           the Thomases' dog


        French names ending in silent s or x add -'s, which is pronounced as
        z, e.g.

        Dumas's (= Dumah's)        Crmieux's


        Names ending in -es pronounced iz are treated like plurals and take
        only an apostrophe (following the pronunciation, which is iz, not
        iziz), e.g.

        Bridges'                   Moses'
        Hodges'                    Riches'


        Polysyllables not accented on the last or second last syllable can
        take the apostrophe alone, but the form with -'s is equally
        acceptable, e.g.

        Barnabas'            or                     Barnabas's
        Nicholas'            or                     Nicholas's


        It is the custom in classical works to use the apostrophe only,
        irrespective of pronunciation, for ancient classical names ending in
        -s, e.g.

        Ceres'               Herodotus'             Venus'
        Demosthenes'         Mars'                  Xerxes'


        Jesus' 'is an accepted liturgical archaism' (Hart's Rules, p. 3l). But
        in non-liturgical use, Jesus's is acceptable (used, e.g., in the NEB,
        John 2: 3).

        With the possessive preceding the word sake, be guided by the
        pronunciation, e.g.

        for goodness' sake   but                    for God's sake
        for conscience' sake (!)                    for Charles's sake


        After -x and -z, use -'s, e.g.  Ajax's, Berlioz's music, Leibniz's
        law, Lenz's law.

    3.  Expressions such as:

        a fortnight's holiday      two weeks' holiday
        a pound's worth            two pounds' worth
        your money's worth

        contain possessives and should have apostrophes correctly placed.

    4.  In I'm going to the butcher's, grocer's, etc.  there is a possessive
        with ellipsis of the word 'shop'. The same construction is used in I'm
        going to Brown's, Green's, etc., so that properly an apostrophe is
        called for.  Where a business calls itself Brown, Green, or the like
        (e.g. Marks and Spencer, J. Sainsbury) the apostrophe would be
        expected before -s.  But many businesses use the title Browns, Greens,
        etc., without an apostrophe (e.g. Debenhams, Barclays Bank). No
        apostrophe is necessary in a Debenhams store or in (go to or take to)
        the cleaners.

    5.  The apostrophe must not be used:

        a.  with the plural non-possessive -s: notices such as TEA'S are often
            seen, but are wrong.
        b.  with the possessive of pronouns: hers, its, ours, theirs, yours;
            the possessive of who is whose.

         it's = it is; who's = who is.

         There are no words her's, our's, their's, your's.

 1.41 -re or -er
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The principal words in which the ending -re (with the unstressed er
    sound--there are others with the sound ruh, e.g. macabre, or ray, e.g.
    padre) is found are:



      accoutre            centre        louvre
    * acre              * euchre      * lucre
      amphitheatre        fibre         lustre
    * cadre               goitre        manoeuvre
      calibre             litre       * massacre
    * meagre              ochre         sepulchre
    * mediocre          * ogre          sombre
      metre (note meter   philtre       sceptre
            the measuring reconnoitre   theatre
            device)       sabre         titre
      mitre               spectre     * wiseacre
      nitre

     All but those marked * are spelt with -er in Amer.  English.

 1.42 re- prefix
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    This prefix is followed by a hyphen:

    1.  Before another e, e.g. re-echo, re-entry.

    2.  So as to distinguish the compound so formed from the more familiar
        identically spelt word written solid, e.g.

        re-cover (put new cover on):  recover
        re-form (form again):  reform
        re-sign (sign again):  resign

 1.43 silent final consonants
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Words borrowed from French having silent final consonants give difficulty
    when inflexions are added to them:

    A. In the plural: see "plural formation" in topic 1.39.

    B. In the possessive: see "possessive case" in topic 1.40.

    C. With verbal inflexions: see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17.

 1.44 -s suffix
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A. As the inflexion of the plural of nouns: see plural formation.

    B. As the inflexion of the third person singular present indicative of
    verbs, it requires the same changes in the stem as the plural ending,
    namely the insertion of -e-:

    1.  After sibilants (ch, s, sh, x, z), e.g.  catches, tosses, pushes,
        fixes, buzzes; note that single s and z are subject to doubling of
        final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16)
        though the forms in which they occur are rare, e.g. gasses,
        nonplusses, quizzes, whizzes.

    2.  After y, which is subject to the change of y to i (see 1.50), e.g.
        cries, flies, carries, copies.

    3.  After o: echo, go, torpedo, veto, like the corresponding nouns, insert
        -e- before -s; crescendo, radio, solo, zero should follow their nouns
        in having -s, but in practice there is variation.

 1.45 -xion or -ction
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Complexion, crucifixion, effluxion, fluxion, genuflexion, inflexion all
    have -x-; connection, reflection (which formerly sometimes had -x-) have
    -ct-; deflexion is increasingly being replaced by deflection.

     In Amer. spelling -ction is more usual in connection, deflection,
    genuflection, inflection, reflection.

 1.46 -y, -ey, or -ie nouns
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The diminutive or pet form of nouns can be spelt -y, -ey, or -ie. The
    majority of nouns which end in the sound of -y are so spelt (whether
    diminutives or of other origin), e.g.

    aunty                granny                 nappy
    baby                 missy                  potty


    The following are the main diminutives spelt with -ey (-ey nouns of other
    kinds are excluded from the list):

    goosey               lovey-dovey            Sawney
    housey-housey        matey                  slavey
    Limey                nursey


    The following list contains the diminutives in -ie, together with a number
    of similar nouns that are not in fact diminutives but do end in -ie. Note
    that most Scottish diminutives are spelt with -ie, e.g. corbie, kiltie.

    beanie                       genie (spirit;         movie
    birdie                          plural genii)       nightie
    bookie                       Geordie                oldie
    brownie                      gillie                 pinkie (little
    budgie                       girlie                    finger)
    caddie (golf; tea caddy)     goalie                 pixie
    chappie                      hippie                 quickie
    charlie                      junkie                 rookie
    clippie                      Kewpie (doll)          sheltie
    cookie                       laddie                 softie
    coolie                       lassie                 Tin Lizzie
    dearie                       mealie (maize;         walkie-talkie
    doggie (noun;                   mealy adjective)    zombie
       doggy adjective)          mountie


    Note: bogie (wheeled undercarriage), bogey (golf), bogy (ghost).

 1.47 -y or -ey adjectives
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    When -y is added to a word to form an adjective, the following changes in
    spelling occur:

    1.  Doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in
        topic 1.16).

    2.  Dropping of silent -e (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17).

        Exceptions:

        a.  After u:

            bluey                gluey                  tissuey


        b.  In words that are not well established in the written language,
            where the retention of -e helps to clarify the sense:

            cagey                dikey                  pricey
            cottagey             matey                  villagey
            dicey                pacey


            Note also holey (distinguished from holy); phoney (of unknown
            origin).

    3.  Insertion of -e- when -y is also the final letter of the stem:

        clayey        skyey         sprayey       wheyey


        Also in gooey.

    4.  Adjectives ending in unstressed -ey (2 (a) and (b) and 3 above) change
        this -ey to -i- before the comparative and superlative suffixes -er
        and -est and the adverbial suffix -ly, e.g.

        cagey: cagily        matey: matily          pricey: pricier
        dicey: dicier        pacey: pacier          phoney: phonily
        gooey: gooier


        Before -ness there is variation, e.g.

        cagey: cageyness     matey: mateyness,      phoney: phoniness
        clayey: clayeyness   matiness               wheyey: wheyiness

 1.48 y or i
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is often uncertainty about whether y or i should be written in the
    following words:


    Write i in:                Write y in:
    cider                      gypsy
    cipher                     lyke-wake
    dike                       lynch law
    Libya                      pygmy
    lich-gate                  style (manner)
    linchpin                   stylus
    sibyl (classical)          stymie
    sillabub                   Sybil (frequently as Christian name)
    silvan                     syrup
    siphon                     tyke
    siren                      tympanum (ear-drum)
    stile (in fence)           tyre (of wheel)
    timpani(drums)             wych-elm
    tiro                       wych-hazel

 1.49 -yse or -yze
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    This verbal ending (e.g. in analyse, catalyse, paralyse) is not a suffix
    but part of the Greek stem -lyse. It should not be written with z (though
    z is normally used in such words in America).

 1.50 y to i
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Words that end in -y change this to -i- before certain suffixes. The
    conditions are:

    A. When the -y is not preceded by a vowel (except -u -in -guy, -quy).

    -y does not change to -i- when preceded by a vowel (other than u in -guy,
    -quy).  So enjoyable, conveyed, parleyed, gayer, gayest, donkeys, buys,
    employer, joyful, coyly, enjoyment, greyness.

    Exceptions: daily, gaily, and adjectives ending in unstressed -ey (see "-y
    or -ey adjectives" in topic 1.47).

    B. When the suffix is:

    1.  -able, e.g. deniable, justifiable, variable.

        Exception: flyable.

    2.  -ed (the past tense and past participle), e.g. carried, denied, tried.

    3.  -er (agent-noun suffix), e.g. carrier, crier, supplier.

        Exceptions: flyer, fryer, shyer (one who, a horse which, shies), skyer
        (in cricket). Note that drier, prier, trier (one who tries) are
        regular.

    4.  -er, -est (comparative and superlative); e.g. drier, driest; happier,
        happiest.

    5.    -es (noun plural and third person singular present indicative), e.g.
        ladies, soliloquies, spies; carries, denies, tries.

        Exceptions: see "plural formation" in topic 1.39

    6.  -ful (adjectives), e.g. beautiful, fanciful. (Bellyful is a noun, not
        an adjective.)

    7.  -less (adjectives), e.g. merciless, remediless.

        Exceptions: some rare compounds, e.g. countryless, hobbyless,
        partyless.

    8.  -ly (adverbs), e.g. drily, happily, plaguily.

        Exceptions: shyly, slyly, spryly, wryly.

    9.  -ment (nouns), e.g. embodiment, merriment.

    10. -ness (nouns), e.g. happiness, cliquiness.

        Exceptions: dryness, flyness, shyness, slyness, spryness, wryness;
        busyness (distinguished from business).

 1.51 Difficult and confusable spellings
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

    (not covered in previous entries)

    The list below contains words (i) which occasion difficulty in spelling;
    (ii) of which various spellings exist; or (iii) which need to be
    distinguished from other words spelt similarly.

    In each case the recommended form is given, and in some cases, for the
    sake of clarity, is followed by the rejected variant. Where the rejected
    variant is widely separated in alphabetical position from the recommended
    form, the former has been given an entry preceded by the mark and followed
    by 'use' and the recommended form.  The wording added to some entries
    constitutes a guide to the sense, not an exhaustive definition or
    description.

        accommodation

        adaptation  not adaption

        adviser

         aerie: use eyrie

        affront

        agriculturist

        ait  not eyot

        align, alignment  not aline, alinement

        alleluia

        almanac (almanack only in some titles)

        aluminium  Amer. aluminum

        ambiance (term in art)

        ambience surroundings

        amok  not amuck

        ampere

        annex (verb)

        annexe (noun)

        any one (of a number)

        anyone anybody

        any time

        any way any manner

        anyway at all events

        apophthegm  Amer. apothegm

        apostasy

        archaeology

        artefact

        aubretia

        aught anything

        autarchy despotism

        autarky self-sufficiency

        auxiliary

        ay yes (plural the ayes have it)

        aye always

        babu  not baboo

        bachelor

        bail out obtain release, relieve financially

        bale out parachute from aircraft

        balk (verb)

        balmy like balm

        barmy (informal) mad

        baulk timber

        bayoneted, -ing

        behove  Amer. behoove

        bivouac (noun and verb)

        bivouacked, bivouacking

        blond (of man or his hair)

        blonde (of woman or her hair)

        born: be born (of child)

        borne: have borne have carried or given birth to; be borne be carried:
        be borne by be carried by or given birth to by (a mother)

        brand-new

        brier  not briar

        bur clinging seed

        burr rough edge, drill, rock, accent, etc.

        cabbala, cabbalistic

        caftan

        calendar almanac

        calender press

        caliph

        calligraphy

        calliper leg support; (plural) compasses  not caliper

        callous (adjective)

        callus (noun)

        camellia shrub

        canvas (noun) cloth

        canvas (verb) to cover with canvas (past canvased)

        canvass (verb) (past canvassed)

        carcass

        caviare

        chameleon

        chancellor

        chaperon

        Charollais

        cheque (bank)

        chequer (noun) pattern (verb) variegate;  Amer. checker

        chilli pepper

        choosy

        chord combination of notes, line joining points on curve

        chukka boot

        chukker (polo)

        clarinettist  Amer. clarinetist

        coco palm

        cocoa chocolate

        coconut

        colander strainer

        commit(ment)

        comparative

        complement make complete, that which makes complete

        compliment praise

        computer

        conjuror

        connection

        conqueror

        conscientious

        consensus

        cord string, flex, spinal cord, rib of cloth

        cornelian  not carnelian

        corslet armour, underwear

        cosy   Amer. cozy

        council assembly

        councillor member of council

        counsel advice, barrister

        counsellor adviser

        court martial (noun)

        court-martial (verb)

        crape black fabric

        crpe crape fabric other than black; rubber; pancake

        crevasse large fissure in ice

        crevice small fissure

        crosier

        crumby covered in crumbs

        crummy (informal) dirty, inferior

        curb restrain, restraint

        curtsy

         czar use tsar

        dare say  not daresay

        debonair

        depositary (person)

        depository (place)

        descendant

        desiccated

        despatch: use dispatch

        deterrable

        devest (only Law: gen. use divest)

        didicoi (tinker)

        dilatation (medical)

        dilator

        dinghy boat

        dingy grimy

        disc  Amer. disk

        discreet judicious

        discrete separate

        disk (sometimes in computing)  Amer. in all senses of disc

        dispatch

        dissect

        dissociate  not disassociate

        disyllable

        divest

        doily

        douse quench

        dowse use divining rod

        draft (noun) military party, money order, rough sketch (verb) sketch 
        Amer. in all senses of draught

        draftsman one who drafts documents

        draught act of drawing, take of fish, act of drinking, vessel's depth,
        current of air  Amer. draft

        draughtsman one who makes drawings, plans, etc; piece in game of
        draughts

        duffel

        ecology

        ecstasy

        ecumenical

        educationist  not educationalist

        effrontery

         eikon: use icon

        eirenicon  not irenicon

        embarrassment

        embed

        employee (masculine and feminine; no accent)

        enclose

        enclosure (but Inclosure Acts)

        encroach

        encyclopaedia

        envelop (verb)

        envelope (noun)

        erector

        every one (of a number)

        everyone everybody

        exalt raise, praise

        exult rejoice

         eyot: use ait

        eyrie  not aerie

        faecal

        faeces

        fee'd (a fee'd lawyer)

        feldspar

        feldspathic

        felloe (of wheel)  not felly

        ferrule cap on stick

        ferule cane

        fetid  not foetid

        flotation

        flu  not 'flu

        foetal, foetus  Amer. fetal, fetus

        fogy

        forbade (past tense of forbid)

        forestall

        for ever for always

        forever continually

        forty

        fount (type)  Amer. font

        fungous (adjective)

        fungus (noun)

        furore  Amer. furor

        fusilier

        fusillade

        gaol (official use  Amer. jail (both forms found in Brit. literary
        use)

        gaoler (as for gaol)

        gauge (measure)

        gazump  not gazoomph, etc.

        gibe jeer

        gild make gold

         gild association: use guild

        glycerine

        gormandize eat greedily

        gormless

        gourmand glutton

        gram

        gramophone

        grandad

        granddaughter

        grayling (fish, butterfly)

        grey  Amer. gray

        griffin fabulous creature  not gryphon

        griffon vulture, dog

        grill for cooking

        grille grating

        grisly terrible

        grizzly grey-haired; bear

        groin (anatomy; architecture)

        grommet  not grummet

        groyne breakwater

        guerrilla

        guild association

        gybe (nautical)  Amer. jibe

        haema-, haemo- (prefix meaning 'blood')

        haemorrhage

        haemorrhoids

        hallelujah

        hallo

        harass

        hark

        harum-scarum

        haulm stem

        hearken

        hiccup

        Hindu

        homoeopathy

        homogeneous having parts all the same

        homogenize make homogeneous

        homogenous having common descent

        honorific

         hooping cough use whooping cough

        horsy

        horticulturist

        hurrah; hurray  not hooray, hooray

        hussy  not huzzy

        hypocrisy

        hypocrite

        icon

        idiosyncrasy

        idyll

        ignoramus plural ignoramuses

         imbed: use embed

        impinging

        impostor

         inclose, inclosure: use en-

        incommunicado

        in so far

        insomuch

        inure

        investor

        irenic

         irenicon: use eirenicon

        its of it

        it's it is

        jail (see gaol)

        jailor (see gaol)

        jalopy

        jam pack tightly; conserve

        jamb door-post

         jibe: use gibe, gybe  Amer. also = accord with

        joust combat  not just

         kabbala: use cabbala

         kaftan: use caftan

        kebab

        kerb pavement  Amer. curb

        ketchup

         khalif use caliph

        kilogram

        kilometre

        koala

        Koran

        kowtow

        labyrinth

        lachrymal of tears

        lachrymose tearful

        lackey

        lacquer

        lacrimal (in science)

        lacrimate, -ation -atory (in science)

        largess

        ledger account book

        leger line (in music)

        licensee

        lickerish greedy

        lightening making light

        lightning (accompanying thunder)

        limeade

        linage number of lines

        lineage ancestry

        lineament feature

        liniment embrocation

        liqueur flavoured alcoholic liquor

        liquor

        liquorice

        litchi Chinese fruit

        literate

        literature

        littrateur

        littoral

        loadstone

        loath(some)  adjectives

        loathe (verb)

        lodestar

        longevity

        longitude  not longtitude

        lour frown

        Mac (prefix) spelling depends on the custom of the one bearing the
        name, and this must be followed; in alphabetical arrangement, treat as
        Mac however spelt. Mac, Mc, M(c) or M'

        mac (informal) mackintosh

        mackintosh

        maharaja

        maharanee

         Mahomet: use Muhammad

        mamma

        mandolin

        manikin dwarf, anatomical model

        manila hemp, paper

        manilla African  bracelet

        mannequin (live) model

        manoeuvrable  Amer. maneuverable

        mantel(piece)

        mantel cloak

        marijuana

        marquis

        marshal (noun and verb)

        marten weasel

        martial of war (martial law)

        martin bird

        marvellous  Amer. marvelous

        matins

        matt lustreless

        medieval not  mediaeval

        menagerie

        mendacity lying

        mendicity the state of being a beggar

        millenary of a thousand; thousandth anniversay

        millennium thousand years

        millepede

        milli- (prefix meaning one-thousandth)

        milometer  not mileometer

        miniature

        minuscule  not miniscule

        mischievous  not mischievious

        miscible (in science)

        missel-thrush

        missis (slang)  not missus

        misspell

        mistletoe

        mixable

        mizen (nautical)

        moneyed

        moneys

        mongoose (plural mongooses)

        moustache  Amer. mustache

        mouth (verb)  not mouthe

        mucous (adjective)

        mucus (noun)

        Muhammad

        murky

        Muslim  not Moslem

        naive, navety

        naught nothing

        nglig

        negligible

        net not subject to deduction

        nonet

        nonsuch unrivalled person or thing

        no one nobody

        nought the figure zero

        numskull

        nurseling  Amer. nursling

        O (interjection) used to form a vocative (O Caesar) and when not
        separated by punctuation from what follows (O for the wings of a dove)

        octet

        of: not to be written instead of have in such constructions as 'Did
        you go?' 'I would have if it hadn't rained.'

        omelette

        on to  not onto

        orangeade

        Orangeism

        orang-utan

        outcast person cast out

        outcaste (India) person with no caste

        ouzel

        oyez!

        paediatric

        palaeo- (prefix = ancient)

        palate roof of mouth

        palette artist's board

        pallet mattress, part of machine, organ valve, platform for loads

        pallor

        panda animal

        pander pimp; to gratify

        panellist  Amer. panelist

        paraffin

        parakeet

        parallel, paralleled, paralleling

        partisan

        pasha

        pastel (crayon)

        pastille

        pavior

        pawpaw (fruit)  not papaw

        pedal (noun) foot lever (verb) operate pedal

        peddle follow occupation of pedlar; trifle

        pederast

        pedigreed

        pedlar vendor of small wares  Amer. peddler

        peen (verb) strike with pein

        peewit

        pein of hammer

        Pekingese dog, inhabitant of Peking  not Pekinese

        peninsula (noun)

        peninsular (adjective)

        pennant (nautical) piece of rigging, flag

        pennon (military) long narrow flag

        phone (informal) telephone  not 'phone

        phoney

        pi pious

        pidgin simplified language

        pie jumbled type

        piebald

        pigeon bird; not one's pigeon not one's affair

        piggy back  not pick-a-back

        pi-jaw

        pilaff  not pilau, pilaw

        pimento  not pimiento

        plane (informal) aeroplane  not 'plane

        plenitude  not plentitude

        plimsoll (shoe)  not plimsole

        plough  Amer. plow

        pommel knob, saddle-bow

        poppadam

        postilion

        powwow

        predacious  not predaceous

        predominant(ly)  not predominate(ly)

        premise (verb) to say as introduction

        premises (plural noun) foregoing matters, building

        premiss (in logic) proposition

        primeval

        principal chief

        principle fundamental truth, moral basis

        prise force open

        Prive Council

        Privy Counsellor

        program (in computing)  Amer. in all senses

        programme (general)

        proletariat

        promoter

        pukka

        pummel pound with fists

        pupillage

        putt (in golf)

        pyjamas  Amer. pajamas

        quadraphony, quadrophonic  not quadri- or quadro-

        quartet

        quatercentenary  not quarter-

        questionnaire

        quintet

        rabbet groove in woodwork (also rebate)

        racket  (for ball games)  not racquet

        rackets game

        racoon  not raccoon

        radical (chemistry)

        radicle (botany)

        raja  not rajah

        rarity

        rattan plant, cane (also rotan)

        raze  not rase

        razzmatazz

        recce (slang) reconnaissance

        recompense

        Renaissance  not Renascence

        renege  not renegue

        repairable (of material) able to be repaired

        reparable (of loss) able to be made good

        reverend (deserving reverence; title of clergy)

        reverent (showing reverence)

        review survey, reconsideration, report

        revue musical entertainment

        rhyme  not rime

        riband (sport, heraldry)

        ribbon

        rigor (medical) shivering-fit

        rigour severity

        Riley (slang: the life of Riley)

        rill stream

        rille (on moon)

        rime frost

        rogues' gallery

        role (no accent)

        roly-poly

        Romania

        rule the roost  not roast

        rumba  not rhumba

        saccharin (adjective)

        salutary beneficial

        salutatory welcoming

        sanatorium  Amer. sanitarium

        Sanhedrin

        satire literary work

        satiric(al) of satire

        satyr woodland deity

        satyric of Greek drama with satyrs

        savannah

        scallop  not scollop

        scallywag  Amer. scalawag

        sceptic  Amer. skeptic

        scrimmage tussle  also term in Amer. football

        scrummage (Rugby)

        sear to scorch, wither(ed)

        secrecy

        seigneur feudal lord

        seigneurial of a seigneur

        seigniory lordship

        selvage

        septet

        sere catch of gun-lock; term in ecology

        sergeant (military, police)

        serjeant (law)

        sestet (in a sonnet)

         sett (noun): use set

        sextet (in music, etc.)

        Shakespearian

        shanty hut, song

        sheath (noun)

        sheathe (verb)

        sheikh

        shemozzle rumpus

        sherif Muslim leader

        sheriff county officer

        show  not shew

        sibylline

        Sinhalise

        slew turn  not slue

        smart alec

        smooth (adjective and verb)  not smoothe

        sobriquet

        somersault

        some time (come and see me some time)

        sometime  former, formerly

        spirituel (masculine and feminine) having refinement of mind

        spurt

        squirearchy

        stanch (verb) stop a fow

        State (capital S for the political unit)

        stationary (adjective) at rest

        stationery (noun) papaer, etc.

        staunch loyal

        stoep (South Africa) veranda

        storey division of building   Amer. story

        storeyed having storeys

        storied celebrated in story

        stoup for holy water, etc.

        straight without curve

        strait narrow

        sty for pigs; swelling on eyelid  not stye

        subsidiary

        sulphur  Amer. sulfur

        sumac

        summons (noun) a command to appear (plural summonses)

        summons (verb) issue a summons (inflected summonsed)

        swap  not swop

        sycamine, sycomore (Biblical trees)

        sycamore (member of maple genus)

        syllabication  not syllabification

        synthesist, synthesize  not synthet-

        teasel (plant)

        teetotalism

        teetotaller

        tehee (laugh)

        tell (archaeology)

        template  not templet

        tetchy

        thank you  not thankyou

        tic contraction of muscles

        tick-tack semaphonre

        titbit  Amer. tidbit

        titillate excite

        titivate smarten up

        today

        tomorrow

        tonight

        tonsillar, tonsillitis

        t'other

        toupee

        Trades Union Congress

        trade union

        traipse trudge  not trapes

        tranquil

        tranquillity, tranquillize

        transferable

        tranship(ment)

        transonic

        transsexual

        trolley

        troop assembly of soldiers

        trooper member of troop

        troupe company of performers

        trouper member of troupe

        tsar

        Turco- (combining form of Turkish)

        tympanum ear-drum

        'un (informal for one)

        underlie, underlying

        unequivocal, -ally  not unequivocable, -ably

        valance curtain, drapery

        valence (in chemistry)

        Vandyke beard, brown

        veld

        vendor

        veranda

        vermilion

        vice tool  Amer. vise

        villain evil-doer

        villein serf

        visor  not vizor

        wagon

        waiver forgoing of legal right

        warrior

        wastable

        waver be unsteady

        way: under way not  under weigh

        whiskey (Irish)

        whisky (Scothch)

        Whit Monday, Sunday

        Whitsunday (Scottish; not a Sunday)

        whiz

        whooping cough

        who's who is

        whose of whom

        wistaria  not wisteria

        withhold

        woeful  not woful

        wrath  anger

        wreath (noun)

        wreathe (verb)

        wroth angry

        yoghurt

 2.0 Pronunciation
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

    For one thing, you speak quite differently from Roy. Now
    mind you, I'm not saying that one kind of voice is better
    than another kind, although ... the B.B.C. seems to have
    very definite views on the subject.

                 (Marghanita Laski, The Village)

    This section aims at resolving the uncertainty felt by many speakers both
    about some of the general variations in the pronunciation of English, and
    about a large number of individual words whose pronunciation is variable.
    Accordingly, the section is in two parts:  A, general points of
    pronunciation, and B, a list of preferred pronunciations.

    The aim of recommending one type of pronunciation rather than another, or
    of giving a word a recommended spoken form, naturally implies the
    existence of a standard. There are of course many varieties of English,
    even within the limits of the British Isles, but it is not the business of
    this section to describe them. The treatment here is based upon Received
    Pronunciation (RP), namely 'the pronunciation of that variety of British
    English widely considered to be least regional, being originally that used
    by educated speakers in southern England'. (1) This is not to suggest that
    other varieties are inferior; rather, RP is here taken as a neutral
    national standard, just as it is in its use in broadcasting or in the
    teaching of English as a foreign language.

     (1)  A Supplement to the OED, Volume 3


 2.1 A. General points of pronunciation
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    This first part of Pronunciationis concerned with general variations and
    uncertainties in pronunciation. Even when RP alone is taken as the model,
    it is impossible to lay down a set of rules that will establish the
    correct pronunciation of every word and hold it constant, since
    pronunciation is continually changing. Some changes affect a particular
    sound in its every occurrence throughout the vocabulary, while others
    occur only in the environment of a few other sounds.  Some changes occur
    gradually and imperceptibly; some are limited to a section of the
    community. At any time there is bound to be considerable variation in
    pronunciation. One of the purposes of the entries that follow is to draw
    attention to such variation and to indicate the degree of acceptability of
    each variant in standard English.  Uncertainty about pronunciation also
    arises from the irregularity of English spelling. It is all too often
    impossible to guess how a particular letter or group of letters in an
    unfamiliar word should be pronounced.  Broadly speaking, there are
    particular letters and letter sequences which repeatedly cause such
    uncertainty (e.g. g (hard and soft); final -ed; final -ade).  To settle
    these uncertainties is the other main purpose of the entries that follow.

    The entries are arranged in alphabetical order of heading; the headings
    are not, of course, complete words, but are either individual letters of
    the alphabet or sequences of letters making up parts (usually the
    beginnings or endings) of words. Some entries cover sounds that are spelt
    in various ways: the heading given is the typical spelling. There are also
    three entries of a different sort:  they deal with (a) the main
    distinguishing features of American pronunciation, (b) the reduction of
    common words in rapid speech, and (c) patterns of stress.

 2.2 a
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    1.  There is variation in the pronunciation of a between the sound heard
        in calm, father and that heard in cat, fan, in

        a.  the suffix -graph (in photograph, telegraph, etc.) and

        b.  the prefix trans- (as in transfer, translate, etc.).

        a.  In -graph, a as in calm seems to be the more generally acceptable
            form in RP. Note that when the suffix - ic is added (e.g. in
            photographic), only a as in cat can be used.

        b.  In trans-, either kind of a is acceptable.

    2.  The word endings -ada, -ade, and -ado occasion difficulty, since in
        some words the pronunciation of the a is as in calm, in others as in
        made.

        a.  In -ada words, a is as in calm, e.g. armada, cicada.

        b.  In most -ade words, a is as in made, e.g. accolade, barricade,
            cavalcade.

            Exceptions: a as in calm in

            aubade        faade     roulade
            ballade       pomade     saccade
            charade       promenade

            and in unassimilated loan-words from French, e.g. dgringolade,
            oeillade.

        c.  In most -ado words, a is as in calm, e.g.

            aficionado       bravado
            amontillado      desperado
            avocado          Mikado

            Exceptions: a as in made in bastinado, gambado, tornado.

    3.  a in the word-ending -alia is like a in alien, e.g. in marginalia,
        pastoralia, penetralia.

    4.  a before ls and lt in many words is pronounced either like aw in bawl
        or o in doll, e.g. in

        alter        halt        salt
        false        palsy       waltz

        The same variation occurs with au in fault, vault. Note: in several
        words a before Is and It can only be pronounced like a in sally, e.g.

        Alsation     altruism    salsify
        alter ego    caltrop     saltation

    5.  The word endings -ata, -atum, and -atus occasion difficulty. In most
        words the a is pronounced as in mate, e.g. in

        apparatus                flatus
        datum (plural data)      hiatus
        desideratum (plural      meatus
           desiderata)           ultimatum

        Exceptions: cantata, erratum, sonata, toccata with a as in calm;
        stratum, stratus with a as in mate or as in calm.

 2.3 -age
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    The standard pronunciation of the following words of French origin ending
    in -age is with stress on the first syllable, a as in calm, and g as in
    rgime.

    barrage        fuselage       mirage
    camouflage     garage         montage
    dressage       massage        sabotage

    Note that collage is stressed on the second syllable.

     The pronunciation of -age as in cabbage in any of these words is
    non-standard. The placing of the stress on the final syllable in some of
    these words is a feature of Amer.  pronunciation.

    The substitution of the sound of g as in large for that in rgime by some
    speakers in several of these words is acceptable.

 2.4 American pronunciation
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    Where the Amer. pronunciation of individual forms and words significantly
    differs from the British, this is indicated as part of the individual
    entries in this Section. There remain certain constant features of
    'General American'  (2) pronunciation that, being generally distributed,
    are not worth noting for every word or form in which they occur. The
    principal features are these:

    1.  r is sounded wherever it is written, i.e. after vowels finally and
        before consonants, as well as before vowels, e.g. in burn, car, form.

    2.  The sound of I is 'dark' (as in British bell, fill) everywhere; the
        British sound of l as in land, light is not used.

    3.  (t)t between vowels sounds like d (and this d often sounds like a kind
        of r), e.g. in latter, ladder, tomato.

    4.  The vowel of boat, dote, know, no, etc. is a pure long vowel, not a
        diphthong as in British English.

    5.  Where British English has four vowels, (i) a as in bat, (ii) ah as in
        dance, father, (iii) o as in hot, long, and (iv) aw as in law, Amer.
        English has only three, differently distributed, viz.: (i) a as in
        bat, dance, (ii) ah as in father, hot, and (iii) aw as in long, law.

    6.  The sound of you (spelt u, ew, etc.) after s, t, d, n, is replaced by
        the sound of oo, e.g. in resume, Tuesday, due, new, etc.

    7.  The sound of u as in up (also spelt o in come, etc.) sounds like the
        obscure sound of a as in aloft, china.

    8.  er is pronounced as in herd in words where it is like ar in hard in
        British English, e.g. in clerk, derby.

    9.  The vowels in the first syllables of (a) ferry, herald, merry, etc.,
        (b) fairy, hairy, Mary, etc., and (c) carry, Harry, marry, etc. (i.e.
        when r follows) are not distinguished from one another by most General
        American speakers.

    10. In words of four syllables and over, in which the main stress falls on
        the first or second syllable, there is a strong secondary stress on
        the last syllable but one, the vowel of which is fully enunciated, not
        reduced as in British English, e.g. cntempltive, tmporry,
        trritry.

     (2) 'A form of U.S. speech without marked dialectal or regional
        characteristics' (A Supplement to the OED, Volume 1).

 2.5 -arily
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    In a few adverbs that end in the sequence -arily there is a tendency to
    place the stress on the a rather than the first syllable of the word. The
    reason lies in the stress pattern of four- and five-syllable words.

    Adjectives of four syllables ending in -ary which are stressed on the
    first syllable are generally pronounced with elision of one of the middle
    syllables, e.g. military, necessary, temporary pronounced milit'ry,
    necess'ry, temp'rary.  This trisyllabic pattern is much easier to
    pronounce.

    The addition of the adverbial suffix -ly converts the word back into an
    unwieldly tetrasyllable that cannot be further elided:  milit(a)rily,
    necess(a)rily, temp(o)rarily.  Hence the use of these adverbs is sometimes
    avoided by saying in a military fashion, in a solitary way, etc.

    A number of these adverbs are, however, in common use, e.g.

    arbitrarily             necessarily                temporarily
    ordinarily              momentarily                voluntarily

    Because of the awkwardness of placing the stress on the first syllable,
    colloquial speech has adopted a pronunciation with stress on the third
    syllable, with the a sounding like e in verily. This is probably a
    borrowing from Amer. English, in which this pronunciation problem does not
    arise. In adjectives like necessary the ending -ary quite regularly
    receives a secondary stress (see "American pronunciation" in topic 2.4
    above), which can then be converted into a main stress when -ly is added.

    This pronunciation is much easier and more natural in rapid, colloquial
    speech, in which it would be pedantic to censure it.

     In formal and careful speech, the standard pronunciation of arbitrarily,
    momentarily, necessarily, ordinarily, temporarily, and voluntarily is with
    stress on the first syllable.

    The case of the word primarily is somewhat different.  It contains only
    four syllables, which, with stress on the first, can be reduced by elision
    of the second syllable to the easily pronounced spoken form prim'rily.

     There is therefore no need to pronounce the word with stress on the
    second syllable, pri-merr-ily, or even worse, pri-marr-ily. These are
    widely unacceptable.

 2.6 -ed
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    1.  In the following adjectives the ending -ed is pronounced as a separate
        syllable:

        accursed         naked         wicked
        cragged          rugged        wretched
        deuced           sacred

        Note deuced can also be pronounced as one syllable.

    2.  The following words represent two different spoken forms each with
        meanings that differ according to whether -ed is pronounced as a
        separate syllable or not. In most cases the former pronunciation
        indicates an adjective (as with the list under 1 above), the latter
        the past tense and past participle of a verb, but some are more
        complicated.


                    (a) -ed as separate           (b) -ed pronounced 'd
                    syllable
    aged            = very old (he is very        = having the age of (one,
                    aged, an aged man)            etc.) (he is aged three, a
                                                  boy aged three); past of to
                                                  age (he has aged greatly)

    beloved         used before noun (beloved     used as predicate (he was
                    brethren); = beloved person   beloved by all)
                    (my beloved is mine)

    blessed         = fortunate, holy, sacred     part of to bless; sometimes
                    (blessed are the meek, the    also in senses listed in
                    blessed saints); = blessed    left-hand column
                    person (Isles of the
                    blessed)

    crabbed         = cross-grained, hard to      past of to crab
                    follow, etc.

    crooked         = not straight, dishonest     = having a transverse handle
                                                  (crooked stick); past of to
                                                  crook

    cursed          before noun = damnable        past of to curse

    dogged          = tenacious                   past of to dog

    jagged          = indented                    past of to jag

    learned         = erudite                     past of to learn (usually
                                                  learnt)

    ragged          = rough, torn, etc.           past of to rag

 2.7 -edly, -edness
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    When the further suffixes -ly (forming adverbs ) and -ness (forming nouns)
    are added to adjectives ending in the suffix -ed, an uncertainty arises
    about whether to pronounce this -ed- as a separate syllable or not. The
    adjectives to which these suffixes are added can be divided into three
    kinds.

    1.  Those in which -ed is already a separate syllable ( a) because it is
        preceded by d or t or (b) because the adjective is one of those
        discussed in the entry for -ed above; e.g. belated, decided, excited
        levelheaded, wicked.  When both -ly and -ness are added, -ed- remains
        a separate syllable, e.g. (i) belatedly, decidedly, excitedly,
        wickedly; (ii) belatedness, levelheadedness, wickedness.

    2.  Those in which the syllable preceding -ed is unstressed, i.e. if -(e)d
        is removed the word ends in an unstressed syllable; e.g. bad-
        tempered, embarrassed, hurried, self-centred.  When both -ly and -ness
        are added, -ed- remains non-syllabic (i.e. it sounds like 'd), e.g.

        (i)  abandonedly             frenziedly                 old-fashionedly
             bad-temperedly          good-humouredly            self-centredly
             biasedly                hurriedly                  shamefacedly
             dignifiedy              ill-naturedly              worriedly
             embarrassedly

        (ii) bad-tempered-ness   selfcentredness (= -center'dness)
             hurriedness         shamefacedness

    3.  Those in which the syllable preceding -ed is stressed, i.e. if -(e)d
        is removed the word ends in a stressed syllable, or is a monosyllable,
        e.g.  assured, fixed.

     (i) When -ly is added -ed becomes an extra syllable, e.g.

    advisedly               declaredly             professedly
    allegedly               deservedly             resignedly
    amusedly                designedly             surprisedly
    assuredly               displeasedly           undisguisedly
    avowedly                fixedly                unfeignedly
    constrainedly           markedly               unreservedly

    Exceptions:

    There are a few definite exceptions to this rule, e.g. subduedly, tiredly
    (ed is not a separate syllable).  There are also several words in which
    variation is found, e.g.  confessedly, depravedly, depressedly (three or
    four syllables according to OED); inspiredly (four syllables in OED, but
    now probably three).

     Note that some adverbs formed on adjectives in -ed sound awkward and
    ugly whether -ed- is pronounced as a separate syllable or not.  Because of
    this, some authorities (e.g. MEU) discourage the formation of words like
    boredly, charmedly, discouragedly, experiencedly.

    (ii) When -ness is added, there is greater variation.  The older usage
    seems to have been to make -ed- an extra syllable. In OED the following
    are so marked:

    absorbedness          estrangedness            forcedness
    assuredness           exposedness              markedness
    confirmedness         fixedness                surprisedness

    The following have ed or 'd as alternative pronunciation:

    ashamedness                   pleasedness
    detachedness                  preparedness

    But 'd is the only pronunciation in blurredness, subduedness. However,
    many other words are not specially marked, and it seems likely that it has
    become increasingly rare for -ed- to be separately sounded.

     It is acceptable not to make -ed- a separate syllable in words of this
    type.

 2.8 -ein(e)
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    The ending -ein(e) (originally disyllabic) is now usually pronounced like
    -ene in polythene in

       caffeine       codeine        casein        protein

 2.9 -eity
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    The traditional pronunciation of e in this termination is as in me, e.g.
    in

    contemporaneity         heterogeneity                spontaneity
    corporeity              homogeneity                  velleity
    deity                   simultaneity

    Among younger speakers there is a marked tendency to substitute the sound
    of e in caf, suede. The reasons for this are probably:

    1.  The difficulty of making the sounds of e (as in me) and i distinct
        when they come together.  Cf. the words rabies, species, protein, etc.
        in which e and i were originally separate syllables but have now
        fused. Because of this difficulty, many users of the traditional
        pronunciation of e actually make the first two syllables of deity
        sound like deer, and so with the other words.

    2.  The influence of the reformed pronunciation of Latin in which e has
        the sound of e in caf.

        The same variation is found in the sequence -ei- in the words deism,
        deist, reify, reification (but not theism, theist).

     The pronunciation of e as in me is the only generally acceptable one in
    all these words.

 2.10 -eur
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    This termination, occurring in words originally taken from French, in
    which it is the agent suffix, normally carries the stress and sounds like
    er in deter, refer, e.g. in:

    agent provocateur          entrepreneur             restaurateur
    coiffeur                   litterateur              sabreur
    colporteur                 masseur                  seigneur
    connoisseur                poseur                   tirailleur
      (con-a-ser)              raconteur                voyeur

    Stress is on the first syllable usually in

               amateur (and amateurish: am-a-ter-ish)
               chauffeur                 saboteur

    Stress can be on either the first or the third syllable in secateurs.

    Feminine nouns can be formed from some of these by the substitution of -se
    for -r: the resulting termination is pronounced like urze in furze, e.g.
    coiffeuse, masseuse, saboteuse.

    liqueur is pronounced Ii-cure (Amer. li-cur).

 2.11 g
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    A. In certain less familiar words and words taken from foreign languages,
    especially Greek, there is often uncertainty as to whether g preceding e,
    i, and (especially) y is pronounced hard as in get or soft as in gem.

    1.  The prefix gyn(o)- meaning 'woman' now always has a hard g.

    2.  The element -gyn- with the same meaning, occurring inside the word,
        usually has a soft g, as in androgynous, misogynist.

    3.  The elements gyr- (from a root meaning ' ring') and -gitis (in names
        of diseases) always have a soft g, as in

        gyrate                            gyro (-scope,
        gyration                            compass, etc.)
        gyre (poetic, =                    laryngitis
          gyrate, gyration)                meningitis

    4.  The following, among many other more familiar words, have a hard g:

        gibbous                           gill (fish's organ)
        gig (all senses)                  gingham

    5.  The following have a soft g:

        gibber              giro                      gypsum
        gibe                  (payment system)        gyrfalcon
        gill (measure)      gybe                      gyve
        gillyflower         gypsophila                panegyric

    6.  There is variation in:

        demagogic, -y, gibberish, hegemony, pedagogic, -y.

     g should be hard in analogous.

    B. See "-age" in topic 2.3.

 2.12 -gm
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    g is silent in the sequence gm at the end of the word:

    apophthegm                       paradigm
    diaphragm                        phlegm

    But g is pronounced when this sequence comes between vowels:

    apophthegmatic                   paradigmatic
    enigma                           phlegmatic

 2.13 h
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    1.  Initial h is silent in heir, honest, honour, hour, and their
        derivatives; also in honorarium.  It is sounded in habitu.

    2.  Initial h used commonly to be silent if the first syllable was
        unstressed, as in habitual, hereditary, historic, hotel. This
        pronunciation is now old-fashioned.  (see "a or an" in topic 1.8.)

 2.14 -ies
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    The ending -ies is usually pronounced as one syllable (like ies in diesel)
    in:

    caries                  rabies                   series
    congeries               scabies                  species
    facies

     The reduction of this ending to a sound like the ending of the plural
    words armies, babies, etc., is best avoided.

 2.15 -ile
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    The ending -ile is normally pronounced like isle, e.g. in

    docile                  fertile             sterile
    domicile                missile             virile

     The usual Amer.  pronunciation in most words of this kind is with the
    sound of il in daffodil or pencil.

    The pronunciation is like eel in:

    automobile              -mobile (suffix)
    imbecile

    -ile forms two syllables in campanile (rhyming with Ely), cantabile
    (pronounced can-tah-bi-ly), and sal volatile (rhyming with philately).

 2.16 ng
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    There is a distinction in Standard English between ng representing a
    single sound (which is represented by n alone before c, k, q, and x, as in
    zinc, ink, tranquil, and lynx) and ng representing a compound consisting
    of this sound followed by the sound of hard g.

    1.  The single sound is the only one to occur at the end of a word, e.g.
        in

            bring       furlong       song       writing

    2.  The single sound also occurs in the middle of words, but usually in
        words that are a compound of a word ending in -ng (as in 1 above) + a
        suffix, e.g.

        bringer                 kingly              stringy
        bringing                longish             wrongful
        hanged                  singable

    3.  The compound sound, ng + g, is otherwise normal in the middle of
        words, e.g.

           anger       language        hungry         singly

        And exceptionally, according to rule 2, in diphthongize, longer, -est,
        prolongation, stronger, -est, younger, -est. 

    4.  It is non-standard:

        a.  To use -in for -ing (suffix), i.e. to pronounce bringing, writing
            as bringin, writin.

        b.  To use n for ng in length, strength. (The pronunciation lenkth,
            strenkth is acceptable.)

        c.  To use nk for ng in anything, everything, nothing, something.

        d.  To use the compound sound ng + g in all cases of ng, i.e. in words
            covered by rules 1 and 2 as well as 3.  This pronunciation is,
            however, normal in certain regional forms of English.

 2.17 o
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    1.  In many words the sound normally represented in English by u as in
        butter, sun is written instead with o, e.g. above, come, front. There
        are a few words in which there is variation in pronunciation between
        the above sound (as in come, etc.) and the more usual sound of o (as
        in body, lot, etc.) The earlier pronunciation of most of these was
        with the u-sound; the o-sound was introduced under the influence of
        the spelling.

        a.  More usually with the u-sound:

            accomplice     frontier      pommel
            accomplish     mongrel

        b.  More usually with the o-sound:

            combat         hovel         pomegranate
            conduit        hover         sojourn
            dromedary

        c.  Still variable (either is acceptable):

                    comrade                    constable

    2.  Before ff, ft, ss, st, and th, in certain words, there was formerly a
        variety of RP in which o was pronounced like aw in law or oa in broad,
        so that off often, cross, lost, and cloth sounded like orf, orphan,
        etc.

         This pronunciation is now non-standard.

    3.  Before double ll, o has the long sound (as in pole) in some words, and
        the short sound (as in Polly) in others.

        a.  With the long sound:

            boll          roll           toll
            droll         scroll         troll
            knoll         stroll         wholly
            poll          swollen

        b.  With the short sound:  doll, loll, and most words in which another
            syllable follows, e.g. collar, holly, etc.

    4.  Before lt, o is pronounced long, as in pole, e.g. bolt, colt, molten,
        revolt.

         The substitution of short o, as in doll, in these words is
        non-standard.

    5.  Before lv, o is pronounced short, as in doll, e.g.

        absolve          evolve           revolve
        devolve          involve          revolver
        dissolve         resolve          solve

         The substitution of long o, as in pole, in these words is
        non-standard.

 2.18 ough
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    Difficult though this spelling is for foreign learners, most words in
    which it occurs are familiar to the ordinary English speaker.
    Pronunciation difficulties may arise, however, with the following words:

    brougham   (a kind of carriage) broo-am or broom
    chough     (bird) chuff
    clough     (ravine) cluff
    hough      (animal's joint), same as, and sounds like, hock
    slough     (bog) rhymes with plough
    slough     (snake's skin) sluff
    sough      (sound) suff ( can also rhyme with plough)

 2.19 phth
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    This sequence should sound like fth (in fifth, twelfth), e.g.  in
    diphtheria, dipthong, monophthong, naphtha, ophthalmic.

     It is non-standard to pronounce these as if written dip-theria, etc.

    Initially, as in the words phthisical, phthisis, the ph can be silent; it
    is also usually silent in apophthegm.

 2.20 pn-, ps-, pt-
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    These sequences occur at the beginning of many words taken from Greek. In
    all of them it is normal not to pronounce the initial p-.  The exception
    is psi representing the name of a Greek letter, used, e.g., as a symbol.

 2.21 r
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    1.  When r is the last letter of a word (always following a vowel, or
        another r) or precedes 'silent' final e (where it may follow a
        consonant, e.g. in acre which really = aker), it is normally silent in
        RP, e.g. in

        aware                   four                  pure
        err                     here                  runner
        far                     kilometre

        But when another word, beginning with a vowel sound, follows in the
        same sentence, it is normal to pronounce the final r, e.g. in

        aware of it
        four hours
        pure air
        to err is human
        here it is
        runner -up
        far away
        a kilometre of track

        This is called the 'linking r'.

         It is standard to use linking r and unnatural to try to avoid it.

    2.  A closely connected feature of the spoken language is what is called
        'intrusive r'.

        a.  The commonest occurrence of this is when a word ending with the
            obscure sound of a, as china, comma, Jonah, loofah, etc. is
            immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound. An
            intrusive r is added to the end of the first word as if it were
            spelt with -er so as to ease the passage from one word to the
            next.

            Typical examples are:

            the area-r of the island       an umbrella-r
            the pasta-r is cooked             organization
            sonata-r in E flat             a villa-r in Italy

            Here the sound spelt -a at the end of area, pasta, etc., which
            sounds the same as -er, -re at the end of runner, kilometre, is
            treated as if it were spelt with an r following.

        b.  In the same way, some speakers unconsciously equate (i) the
            spelling a or ah in grandma, Shah with the identical-sounding ar
            in far, (ii) the spelling aw in law, draw with the similar our in
            four or ore in bore, tore, and (iii) the spelling eu in milieu,
            cordon bleu with the similar er(r) in err, prefer.  Thus, just as
            linking r is used with far, four, bore, tore, err, and prefer,
            such speakers introduce an intrusive r in, e.g.

            is grandma-r at home?          a milieu-r in
            The Shah-r of Iran               which...
            draw-r a picture               a cordon bleu-r
            law-r and order                  in the kitchen


        c.  Intrusive r is often introduced before inflexional endings, e.g.

            The boys are keen on scubering (i.e. scubaing) (Berkely Mather)
            oohing and ah-r-ing
            draw-r-ing room

            and even within the word withdraw-r-al.

        d.  Intrusive r has been noted since the end of the eighteenth
            century.  In the mid-nineteenth century it was regarded as
            unpardonable in an educated person, but acknowledged to occur
            widely even among the cultivated.

            Its use after obscure a (as described under 2a above), where it
            greatly aids the flow of the sentence and is relatively
            unobtrusive, is acceptable in rapid, informal speech. The
            avoidance of intrusive r here by the insertion of a hiatus or a
            catch in the breath would sound affected and pedantic.


         The use of intrusive r after the sounds of ah, aw, and eu (described
        under 2b ) is very widely unacceptable and should be avoided if
        possible. Its use before inflexional endings (2c above) is illiterate
        or jocular.

         In formal speech, the use of intrusive r in any context conveys an
        impression of unsuitable carelessness and should not be used at all.

    3.  There is a tendency in certain words to drop r if it is closely
        followed (or in a few cases, preceded) by another r at the beginning
        of an unstressed syllable, e.g. in

        deteriorate mispronounced deteriate
        February mispronounced Febuary
        honorary mispronounced honary (prefer hon'rary)
        itinerary mispronounced itinery
        library mispronounced lib'ry
        secretary mispronounced seketry or seketerry
        temporary mispronounced tempary (prefer temp'rary)

     This pronunciation should be avoided, especially in formal speech.

 2.22 reduced forms
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    In rapid speech, many of the shorter words whose function is essentially
    grammatical rather than lexical, being lightly stressed, tend to be
    reduced either by the obscuring of their vowels or the loss of a consonant
    or both.  They may even be attached to one another or to more prominent
    words.  similarly, some words such as pronouns and auxiliary verbs are in
    rapid speech omitted altogether, while longer words of frequent occurrence
    are shortened by the elision of unstressed syllables.  Typical examples
    are:

    gunna, wanna         = going to, want to
    kinda, sorta         = kind of, sort of
    gimme, lemme         = give me, let me
    'snot                = it's not
    innit, wannit        = isn't it, wasn't it
    doncha dunno         = don't you, I don't know
    what's he say, where d'you find it, we done it, what you want it for?
    'spect or I'xpect    = I expect
    (I) spose            = I suppose
    cos, course, on'y, praps, probly = because, of course, only, perhaps,
       probably

     Most of these reduced forms (with the possible exception of innit,
    wannit) are natural in informal RP, but severely mar the quality and
    clarity of careful and prepared discourse, where they should be avoided.

 2.23 s, sh, z and zh
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    In certain kinds of word, where the spelling is ci, si, or ti, or where it
    is s before long u, there is variation between two or more of the four
    sounds which may be phonetically represented as:

    s  as in sun           zh representing the
    sh as in ship                sound of s in leisure
    z  as in zone                or g in rgime

    1.  There is variation between s and sh in words such as:

        appreciate                association                 negotiation
        appreciation              negotiate                   sociology
        associate

        This variation does not occur in all words with a similar structure:
        only s is used in glaciation, pronunciation (=-see-ay-shon), and only
        sh in partiality (par-shee-al-ity). Note that there can be a variant
        having the sound of s only with words in which the following i
        constitutes a separate syllable;  hence only sh occurs in initial,
        racial, sociable, spatial, special, etc.  It is possible that speakers
        avoid using sh in words that end in -tion, which also contains the sh-
        sound, so as to prevent the occurrence of this sound in adjacent
        syllables, e.g. in appreciation = appreshi-ashon.

    2.  There is variation between s and sh in sensual, sexual, issue, tissue,
        and between z and zh in casual, casuist, visual.

    3.  There is variation between sh and rh in aversion, equation, immersion,
        transition, version.

         Either variant is acceptable in each of these kinds of word,
        although in all of them sh is the traditional pronunciation.

    4.  In the names of some countries and regions ending in -sia, and in the
        adjectives derived from them, there is variation between sh and zh,
        and in some cases z and s as well. So:

        Asian      = A-shan or A-zhan
        Asiatic    = A-shi-at-ic or A-zhi-at-ic or A-zi-at-ic or A-si-at-ic
        Friesian   = Free-zi-an or Free-zhan
        Indonesian = Indo-nee-shan or -zhan  or -zi-an or -si-an
        Persian    = Per-shan or Per-zhan
        Polynesian (varies like Indonesian)
        Rhodesian  = Ro-dee-shan or -zhan or -zi-an or -si-an

     In all except Friesian the pronunciation with sh is traditional in RP
    and therefore the most widely acceptable. The pronunciation with zh is
    also generally acceptable.

 2.24 stress
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    1.  The position of the stress accent is the key to the pronunciation of
        many English polysyllabic words. If it is known on which syllable the
        stress falls, it is very often possible to deduce the pronunciation of
        the vowels. This is largely because the vowels of unstressed syllables
        in English are subject to reduction in length, obscuration of quality,
        and, quite often, complete elision.  Compare the sound of the vowel in
        the stressed syllable in the words on the left with that of the vowel
        in the same syllable, unstressed, in the related words on the right:

        a: humnity                     hman
           monrchic                    mnarch
           practiclity                 prctically(ic'ly)
           secretrial                  scretary (-try)
        e: presnt (verb)               prsent (noun)
           protst                      protesttion
           mystrious                   mystery (=myst'ry)
        i: satrical                    stirist
           combne                      combintion
           anxety                      nxious (=anksh'ous)
        o: ecnomy                      econmic
           oppse                       pposite
           histric                     hstory (=hist'ry)
        u: luxrious                    lxury
           indstrial                   ndustry

        Because the position of the stress has such an important effect on the
        phonetic shape of the word, it is not surprising that many of the most
        hotly disputed questions of pronunciation centre on the placing of the
        stress.  For example, in controversy, stress on the first syllable
        causes the four vowels to sound like those of collar turning, while
        stress on the second causes them to sound like those of an opposite:
        two quite different sequences of vowels.

    2.  It is impossible to formulate rules accounting for the position of the
        stress in every English word, whether by reference to the spelling or
        on the basis of grammatical function. If it were, most of the
        controversies about pronunciation could be cleared up overnight.
        Instead, three very general observations can be made.

        a.  Within very broad limits, the stress can fall on any syllable.
            These limits are roughly defined by the statement that more than
            three unstressed syllables cannot easily be uttered in sequence.
            Hence, for example, five-syllable words with stress on the first
            or last syllable are rare. Very often in polysyllabic words at
            least one syllable besides the main stressed syllable bears a
            medium or secondary stress, e.g. cterpllar, cntrovrtiblity.

        b.  Although there is such fluidity in the occurrence of stress, some
            patterns of stress are clearly associated with some patterns of
            spelling or with grammatical function (or, especially, with
            variation of grammatical function in a single word).  For example,
            almost all words ending in the suffixes -ic and -ical are stressed
            on the syllable immediately preceding the suffix. There is only a
            handful of exceptions: Arabic, arithmetic (noun), arsenic,
            catholic, choleric, heretic, lunatic, politic(s), rhetoric.

        c.  If the recent and current changes and variations in stress in a
            large number of words are categorized, a small number of general
            tendencies can be discerned.  Most of these can be ascribed to the
            influence exerted by the existing fixed stress patterns over other
            words (many of which may conform to other existing patterns of
            stress).  It will be the purpose of the remaining part of this
            entry to describe some of these tendencies and to relate them to
            the existing canons of acceptibility.

    3.  Two-syllable words

        While there is no general rule that says which syllable the stress
        will fall on, there is a fixed pattern to which quite a large number
        of words conform, by which nouns and adjectives are stressed on the
        first syllable, and verbs on the second.

        A large number of words beginning with a (Latin) prefix have stress on
        the first syllable if they are nouns or adjectives, but on the second
        if they are verbs, e.g.

        accent                    import                   transfer
        compound                  present                  transport
        conflict                  suspect

        The same distinction is made in some words ending in -ment, e.g.

        ferment                    segment
        fragment                   torment

        And words ending in -ate with stress on the first syllable are usually
        nouns, while those with stress on the second are mainly verbs, e.g.

        nouns: climate                             verbs: create
               curate                                     dictate
               dictate                                    frustrate
               mandate                                    vacate

        This pattern has recently exercised an influence over several other
        words not originally conforming to it. The words

        ally                         defect                         rampage
        combine                      intern

        were all originally stressed on the second syllable; as verbs, they
        still are, but as nouns, they are all usually stressed on the first.
        Exactly the same tendency has affected

           dispute       research       recess       romance

        but in these words, the pronunciation of the noun with stress on the
        first syllable is rejected in good usage.  The following nouns and
        adjectives (not corresponding to identically spelt verbs) show the
        same transference of stress:  adept, adult, chagrin, supine.

        In the verbs combat, contact, harass, and traverse, originally
        stressed on the first syllable, a tendency towards stress on the
        second syllable is discernible, but the new stress has been accepted
        only in the word traverse.

    4.  Three-syllable words

        Of the three possible stress patterns in three-syllable words, that
        with stress on the first syllable is the strongest and
        best-established, exercising an influence over words conforming to the
        other two patterns.

        a.  Words with stress on the final syllable are relatively rare. A
            number of them have been attracted to the dominant pattern; in
            some this pattern (stress on the first syllable) is acceptable in
            RP, e.g.  artisan, commandant, confidant, partisan, promenade; in
            others it is not, e.g. cigarette, magazine.

        b.  Many words originally having stress on the second syllable now
            normally or commonly have stress on the first, e.g.

            abdomen         decorous       recondite
            acumen          obdurate       remonstrate
            albumen         precedence     secretive
            aspirant        precedent      sonorous
            communal          (noun)       subsidence
            composite       quandary       vagary

            Other words are also affected by this tendency, but the
            pronunciation with stress on the first syllable has not been
            accepted as standard, e.g. in

               Byzantine             contribute
               clandestine           distribute

            Note:  This tendency to move the stress back from the second to
            the first syllable of three-syllable words has been observed for
            at least a century. A case that typically illustrates it is the
            word sonorous.  In 1884 W. W. Skeat, in his Etymological
            Dictionary of the English Language (edn. 2), wrote: 'Properly
            sonrous; it will probably, sooner or later, become snorous.' The
            first dictionary to recognize the change was Webster's New
            International of 1909, which adds the newer pronunciation with the
            comment 'now often, esp. in British usage'. Fifty years after
            Skeat, G. B. Shaw wrote to The Times (2 Jan. 1934): 'An announcer
            who pronounced decadent and sonorous as dekkadent and sonnerus
            would provoke Providence to strike him dumb'-- testifying both to
            the prevalence of the new pronunciation and to the opposition it
            aroused. In 1956 Compton Mackenzie, in an Oxford Union Debate,
            protested against the pronunciation of quandary, sonorous, and
            decorous with stress on the first syllable (B. Foster, The
            Changing English Language, 1968, p.  243). Foster (ibid.),
            however, records his surprise in about 1935 at hearing a
            schoolmaster use the older pronunciation of sonorous.  The newer
            pronunciation was first mentioned in the Concise Oxford Dictionary
            in 1964; the two pronunciations are both heard, but the newer one
            probably now prevails.

        c.  There is a tendency in a few words to move the stress from the
            first to the second syllable. It is generally resisted in standard
            usage, e.g.  in

            combatant               exquisite                     urinal
            deficit                 stigmata

            all of which have stress on the first syllable. But it has
            prevailed in aggrandize, chastisement, conversant, doctrinal,
            environs, pariah.

    5.  Four-syllable words

        In a very large group of four-syllable words there is a clash between
        two opposing tendencies. One is the impulse to place the stress on the
        first syllable; the other is the influence of antepenultimate stress
        which is so prevalent in three-syllable words.  Broadly speaking, it
        has been traditional in RP to favour stress on the first syllable, so
        that the shift to the second syllable has been strongly resisted in:

        applicable               demonstrable              intricacy
        aristocrat               formidable                kilometre
        capitalist               hospitable                lamentable
        controversy              illustrative              remediless
        contumacy

        In many words the two tendencies can be reconciled by the elision of
        one of the two middle unstressed syllables:

        adversary                 necessary                  promissory
        comparable                participle                 referable
        migratory                 preferable                 voluntary
        momentary                 primarily

        However, many words traditionally stressed on the first syllable have
        been, or are being, adapted to the antepenultimate stress pattern,
        e.g.

        centenary                 hegemony                   nomenclature
        despicable                metallurgy                 pejorative
        disputable                miscellany                 peremptory
        explicable

        Because antepenultimate stress has been accepted in most of these
        words, it is difficult to reject it in the words in the first list
        simply on the ground of tradition.  Analogy is the obvious argument in
        some cases, i.e.  the analogy of capital, demonstrate, illustrate,
        intricate, kilocycle (or centimetre), and remedy for the words related
        to them in the list, but this cannot be used with the remaining words.

    6.  Five-syllable words

        Five-syllable words originally stressed on the first syllable have
        been affected by the difficulty of uttering more than three unstressed
        syllables in sequence (see 2a above).  The stress has been shifted to
        the second syllable in laboratory, obligatory, whereas in veterinary
        the fourth syllable is elided, and usually the second as well. For
        arbitrarily, momentarily, etc., see "-arily" in topic 2.5.

 2.25 t
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    1.   In rapid speech, t is often dropped from the sequence cts, so that
        acts, ducts, pacts sound like axe, ducks, packs.

         This should be avoided in careful speech.

    2.  The sounding of t in often is a spelling pronunciation: the
        traditional form in RP rhymes with soften.

 2.26 th
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    1.  Monosyllabic nouns ending in -th after a vowel sound (or vowel + r)
        form the plural by adding -s in the usual way, but the resulting
        sequence ths is pronounced in two different ways. In some words It
        voiceless as in myths, in others voiced as in mouths.

        a.  The following are like myth:

            berth           girth           sleuth
            birth           growth          sloth
            breath          hearth             (animal)
            death           heath           smith
            faith           moth            wraith
            fourth

        b.  The following are like mouth:

            bath           sheath           wreath
            oath           swath            youth
            path           truth

            cloth, lath vary, but are now commonly like myth.

    2.  Note that final th is like th in bathe, father in:

        bequeath              booth
        betroth               mouth (verb)

 2.27 u
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    The sound of long u, as in cube, cubic, cue, use is also spelt eu, ew, and
    ui, as in feud, few, pursuit. It is properly a compound of two sounds, the
    semi-vowel y followed by the long vowel elsewhere written oo. Hence the
    word you (=y + oo) sounds like the name of the letter U, ewe, and yew.

    When this compound sound follows certain consonants the y is lost, leaving
    only the oo-sound.

    1.  Where it follows ch,j, r, and the sound of sh, the y element was lost
        in the mid-eighteenth century.

        So brewed, chews, chute, Jules, rude, sound like brood, choose, shoot,
        joules, rood.

        The y element was also lost at about the same time or a little later
        where it follows an l preceded by another consonant; so blew, clue,
        glue, etc. sound as if they were spelt bloo, cloo, gloo, etc.

    2.  Where this compound sound follows an l not preceded by another
        consonant, loss of the y-element is now very common in a syllable that
        bears the main or secondary stress.  COD, for instance, gives only the
        oo pronunciation in many words, e.g. Lewis, Lucifer, lucrative, lucre,
        etc., and either pronunciation for many others, e.g. lubricate, Lucan,
        lucid, ludicrous, etc.

        It is equally common in internal stressed syllables; in COD the words
        allude, alluvial, collusion, voluminous, etc.  are given both
        pronunciations. So also in a syllable which bears a secondary stress:
        absolute, interlude.

         In all syllables of these kinds, the oo-sound is probably the
        predominant type, but either is acceptable.

         In unstressed syllables, however, it is not usual for the y-element
        to be lost.  The yoo-sound is the only one possible in, e.g.

        curlew                       purlieu                        value
        deluge                       soluble                        volume
        prelude                      valuable

        Contrast solute (= sol-yoot) with salute (= sa-loot).

    3.  After s, there is again variation between the compound sound and the
        oo-sound. The latter has now a very strong foothold. Very few people,
        if any, pronounce Susan and Sue with a yoo, and most people pronounce
        super (the word and the prefix) with oo.  On the other hand, most
        people probably use yoo in pseudo- and in internal syllables, as in
        assume, presume, pursue. Common words such as sewage, sewer, suet,
        suicide, sue, and suit show wide variation: some people pronounce the
        first four (in which another vowel follows ew or u) with oo, but the
        last two with yoo.

        In an unstressed syllable, the y- sound is kept, as with l in 2 above:

            capsule              consular            insulate
            chasuble             hirsute             peninsula

         Apart from in Susan, Sue, and super, and the words in which the
        vowel occurs in an unstressed syllable, either pronunciation is
        acceptable, although yoo is the traditional one.

    4.  After d, n, t, and th, the loss of the y-sound is non-standard, e.g.
        in due, new, tune, enthusiasm.

        Note:   In Amer. English loss of the y-sound is normal after these
        consonants and l and s.

         The tendency to make t and d preceding this sound in stressed
        syllables sound like ch and j, e.g. Tuesday, duel as if Choosday,
        jewel, should be avoided in careful speech.  In unstressed syllables
        (e.g. in picture, procedure) it is normal.

 2.28 ul
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    After b, f, and p, the sequence ul sounds like ool in wool in some words,
    e.g. in bull, full, pull, and like ull in hull in others, e.g. in bulk,
    fulminate, pulp. In a few words there is uncertainty about the sound of u,
    or actual variation.

    (a) Normally with u as in hull:

    Bulgarian          fulminate     pulmonary
    ebullient          pullulate     pulverize
    effulgent

    (b) Normally with u as in bull:

    bulwark         fulsome         fulmar         fulvous

    (c) With variation: fulcrum

 2.29 urr
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    In Standard English the stressed vowel of furry and occurring is like that
    of stirring, not that of hurry and occurrence.

     The identity of the two sounds is normal in Amer. English.

 2.30 wh
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    In some regions wh is distinguished from w by being preceded or
    accompanied by an h-sound.

     This pronunciation is not standard in RP, but is acceptable to most
    RP-speakers.

 2.31 B. Preferred pronunciations
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The entries in this list are of three kinds. Some of the words in it have
    only one current pronunciation, which cannot, however, he deduced with
    certainty from the written form. These are mainly words that are
    encountered in writing and are not part of the average person's spoken
    vocabulary.  Another class of words included here have a single,
    universally accepted pronunciation, which, in rapid or careless speech,
    undergoes a significant slurring or reduction. These reduced forms are
    noted, with a warning to use the fully enunciated form in careful speech
    so as to avoid giving an impression of sloppiness or casualness.  Much the
    largest group are words for which two or more different pronunciations
    exist. Both (or all) are given, with notes giving a rough guide to the
    currency and acceptability of each.

    The approach adopted here is fairly flexible, allowing for the inevitable
    subjectivity of judgements about pronunciation and the fact that there is
    variation and inconsistency even in the speech of an individual person.

    Where the American pronunciation is significantly different from the
    British (disregarding the differences that are constant, such as the
    American pronunciation of r where it is silent in British speech), a note
    of it has been added, usually in brackets at the end of the entry.  In a
    few cases the American pronunciation stands alone after the recommended
    one, implying that the use of the American form is incorrect in British
    speech. It will be found that in many cases the American pronunciation
    coincides with an older British one that is now being ousted. It is hoped
    that this will dispel the impression that all innovations are
    Americanisms, and give a clearer idea of the relationship between the two
    varieties of English pronunciation.

    The symbol  is used to warn against forms especially to be avoided; 
    introduces most of the cases of peaceful coexistence of two variant
    pronunciations.

    abdomen   stress on 1st syllable in general use; on 2nd in the speech of
              many members of the medical profession.

    accomplice, accomplish
              the older (and Amer.) pronunciation has 2nd syllable as in
              comma; but pronunciation as come is now predominant.

    acoustic  2nd syllable as coo, not cow.

    acumen    stress on 1st syllable.

    adept, adult
              (adjective and noun):  stress on 1st syllable.

    adversary stress on 1st syllable.

    aficionado
              a-fiss-eon-ah-do.

    aggrandize
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    ague      2 syllables.

    albumen   stress on 1st syllable.

    ally      (noun): stress on 1st syllable; (verb) on 2nd syllable; allied
              preceding a noun is stressed on 1st syllable.

    analogous g as in log; not a-na-lo-jus.

    Antarctic  do not drop the first c.

    anti-     (prefix): rhymes with shanty, not, as often Amer., ant eye.

    antiquary stress on 1st syllable.

    apache    (Indian): rhymes with patchy; (street ruffian) rhymes with cash.

    apartheid 3rd syllable like hate.   Not apart-ite or apart-hide.

    apophthegm
              a-po-them.

    apparatus 3rd syllable like rate; not appar-ah-tus.

    applicable
              stress on 1st syllable.

    apposite  3rd syllable like that of opposite.

    arbitrarily
              stress properly on 1st syllable, in informal speech on 3rd.

    Arctic     do not drop the first c.

    Argentine 3rd syllable as in turpentine.

    aristocrat
              stress on 1st syllable.   Not (except Amer.) a-rist-ocrat.

    artisan   stress originally on 3rd syllable; pronunciation with stress on
              1st syllable is Amer., and now common in Britain.

    aspirant  stress on 1st syllable.

    asthma    ass-ma is the familiar pronunciation; to sound the th is
              didactic (Amer. az-ma).

    ate       rhymes with bet (Amer. with bate).

    audacious au as in audience, not as in gaucho.

    auld lang syne
              3rd word like sign, not zine.

    azure     the older pronunciation was with -zure like -sure in pleasure;
              now usually az-yoor.

    banal     2nd syllable like that of canal or morale (Amer. rhymes with
              anal).

    basalt    1st a as in gas, 2nd as in salt; stress on either.

    bathos    a as in paper.

    blackguard
              blagg-ard.

    bolero    (dance): stress on 2nd syllable; (jacket) stress on 1st.

    booth     rhymes with smooth (Amer. with tooth).

    bouquet   first syllable as book, not as beau.

    Bourbon   (dynasty): 1st syllable as that of bourgeois; (US whisky) 1st
              syllable as bur.

    breeches  rhymes with pitches.

    brochure  stress on 1st syllable.

    brusque   should be Anglicized: broosk or brusk.

    bureau    stress on 1st syllable.

    burgh     (in Scotland): sounds like borough.

    Byzantine stress on 2nd syllable.

    cadaver   2nd syllable as in waver.

    cadaverous
              2nd syllable like 1st of average.

    cadre     rhymes with harder.

    caliph    rhymes with bailiff.

    camellia  rhymes with Amelia.

    canine     1st syllable may be as can or cane (the latter probably
              prevails).

    canton    (subdivision): 2nd syllable as 1st of tonic; (military, also in
              cantonment) 2nd syllable as that of cartoon.

    capitalist
              stress on 1st syllable.

    carillon  rhymes with trillion (Amer. carry-lon).

    caryatid  stress on 2nd a.

    catacomb  3rd syllable, in the older pronunciation, as comb; now
              frequently rhyming with tomb.

    centenary sen-tee-nary (Amer. sen-te-nary).

    cento     c as in cent, not cello.

    centrifugal, centripetal
              stress originally on 2nd syllable; but pronunciation with stress
              on 3rd syllable seems to be usual among younger speakers.

    certification
              stress on 1st and 4th syllables, not 2nd and 4th.

    cervical   stress either on 1st syllable (with last two syllables as in
              vertical) or on 2nd (rhyming with cycle): both pronunciations
              have been common for at least a century and a half (Amer. only
              the first pronunciation).

    chaff     rhymes with staff.

    chagrin   stress on 1st syllable; 2nd as grin (Amer. stress on 2nd
              syllable).

    chamois   (antelope): sham-wah; (leather) shammy.

    chastisement
              traditionally with stress on 1st syllable; now often on 2nd.

    chimera   ch = k not sh

    chiropodist
              strictly ch = k, but pronunciation as sh is common.

    choleric  1st two syllables like collar.

    cigarette stress on 3rd syllable (Amer. on 1st).

    clandestine
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    clangour  rhymes with anger.

    clientele kleeon-tell.

    clique    rhymes with leak, not lick.

    coccyx    cc = ks.

    colander  1st syllable as cull.

    combat    (verb), combatant, -ive:  stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

    combine   (noun): stress on 1st syllable.

    commandant
              stress originally on 3rd syllable; now often on 1st.

    communal  stress on 1st syllable.

    commune   (noun): stress on 1st syllable.

    comparable
              stress on 1st syllable, not on 2nd.

    compensatory
              the older (and Amer.)  pronunciation has stress on 2nd syllable,
              but stress on 3rd is now common.

    compilation
              2nd syllable as pill.

    composite stress on 1st syllable; 3rd as that of opposite (Amer.  stress
              on 2nd syllable).

    conch     originally = conk; now often with ch as in lunch.

    conduit   last three letters like those of circuit (Amer. con-doo-it).

    confidant(e)
              the older pronunciation has stress on last syllable, which
              rhymes with ant; stress on 1st syllable is now common.

    congener  stress on 1st syllable; o as in con; g as in gin.

    congeries  con-jeer-eez or con-jeer-y-eez.

    congratulatory
              stress on 2nd syllable; pronunciation with stress on 4th
              syllable is also common.

    conjugal  stress on 1st syllable.

    consuetude
              stress on 1st syllable; sue like swi in swift.

    consummate
              (adjective): stress on 2nd syllable; (verb) on 1st syllable, 3rd
              syllable as mate.

    contact   (noun and verb): stress on 1st syllable.

    contemplative
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    contrarily
              (on the contrary): stress on 1st syllable; (perversely) stress
              on 2nd syllable.

    contribute
              stress on 2nd syllable.   The former pronunciation with stress
              on 1st syllable has survived in dialect and is frequently heard,
              but is not standard.

    controversy
              stress on 1st syllable.   The pronunciation with stress on 2nd
              syllable seems to be increasingly common, but is strongly
              disapproved by many users of RP.

    contumacy stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

    contumely 3 syllables with stress on the 1st.

    conversant
              now usually stressed on 2nd syllable; formerly on 1st.

    courier   ou as in could.

    courteous 1st syllable like curt.

    courtesan 1st syllable like court.

    courtesy  1st syllable like curt.

    covert    1st syllable like that of cover.  Does not rhyme with overt.

    culinary  cul- now usually as in culprit; formerly as in peculiar.

    dais      originally one syllable; now only with two.

    data      1st syllable as date.  Does not rhyme with sonata.

    decade    stress on 1st syllable.

    defect    (noun): stress on 1st syllable is now usual.

    deficit   stress on 1st syllable.

    deify, deity
              e as in me.   Pronunciation with e as in suede, fte is common
              among younger speakers, but is disapproved of by many users of
              RP.

    delirious 2nd syllable as 1st of lyrical, not Leary.

    demesne   2nd syllable sounds like main.

    demonstrable
              stress on 1st syllable.

    deprivation
              1st two syllables like those of depreciation.

    derisive, derisory
              2nd syllable like rice.

    despicable
              in formal speech, stress on 1st syllable; informally, especially
              for greater emphasis, on 2nd.

    desuetude as for consuetude.

    desultory stress on 1st syllable.

    deteriorate
               do not drop 4th syllable, i.e. not deteri-ate.

    detour    dee-tour not day-tour (Amer.  de-tour).

    deus ex machina
              day-us ex mak-ina, not ma-shee-na.

    dilemma   1st syllable like dill.

    dinghy    ding-gy, not rhyming with stringy.

    diphtheria, diphthong
              ph = f not p.

    disciplinary
              the older (and Amer.)  pronunciation has stress on 1st syllable,
              but it is now usually on the 3rd (with i as in pin).

    disputable
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    dispute   (noun): stress on 2nd syllable, not on 1st.

    dissect   1st syllable as Diss.  Does not rhyme with bisect.

    distribute
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    doctrinal the older pronunciation has stress on 1st syllable, but it is
              now usually on the 2nd (with i as in mine).

    dolorous, dolour
              1st syllable like doll (Amer. like dole).

    dour      rhymes with poor not power.

    dubiety   last 3 syllables like those of anxiety.

    ducat     1st syllable like duck.

    dynast, dynastic, dynasty
              1st syllable like din (Amer. like dine).

    ebullient u as in dull, not as in bull.

    economic   e as in extra or as in equal: both are current.

    Edwardian 2nd syllable as ward.

    e'er      (poetry, = ever): sounds like air.

    efficacy  stress on 1st syllable, not 2nd.

    ego       1st syllable as that of eager.

    egocentric, egoism,
              etc.: 1st syllable like egg (Amer. usually as ego).

    either    ei as in height or seize:  both are widely current (Amer.  only
              the second pronunciation).

    elixir    rhymes with mixer.

    enclave   en- as in end, a as in slave.

    entirety  now usually entire-ety; formerly entire-ty.

    envelope  en- as in end not on.

    environs  rhymes with sirens.

    epos      e as in epic.

    epoxy     stress on 2nd syllable.

    equerry   stress properly on 2nd syllable, but commonly on 1st.

    espionage now usually with -age as in camouflage.

    et cetera etsetera.  Not eksetera.

    explicable
              stress originally on 1st syllable, but now usually on 2nd.

    exquisite stress on 1st syllable.

    extraordinary
              1st a is silent.

    fakir     sounds like fake-ear.

    falcon    a as in talk, not as in alcove.

    fascia    rhymes with Alsatia.

    fascism, fascist
              1st syllable like that of fashion.

    February   do not drop the 1st r:  feb-roor-y, not feb-yoor-y or
              feb-wa-ry or feb-yoo-erry (Amer. feb-roo-erry).

    fetid, fetish
              e as in fetter.

    fifth     in careful speech, do not drop the 2nd f.

    finance    stress on 1st syllable (only with i as in fine) or on 2nd
              (with i as in fin or fine).

    forbade   2nd syllable like bad.

    formidable
              in careful speech, stress on 1st syllable; informally, on 2nd.

    forte     (one's strong point):  originally (and Amer.) like fort, but now
              usually like the musical term forte.

    foyer     foy-ay or fwah-yay (Amer.  foy-er).

    fracas    (singular): frack-ah, (plural) frack-ahz (Amer. frake-us).

    fulminate u as in dull.

    fulsome   u formerly as in dull, now always as in full.

    furore    3 syllables (Amer. furor with 2).

    Gaelic    1st syllable as gale.

    gala      1st a as in calm.  The former pronunciation with a as in gale
              is still used in the North and US.

    gallant   (brave, etc.): stress on 1st syllable; (polite and attentive to
              ladies) stress on 1st or 2nd syllable.

    garage    stress on 1st syllable, age as in camouflage (or rhyming with
              large).  Pronunciation so as to rhyme with carriage is
              non-standard (Amer. ga-rahge).

    garrulity stress on 2nd syllable, which sounds like rule.

    garrulous stress on 1st syllable.

    gaseous   1st syllable like gas.

    genuine   ine as in engine.

    genus     e as in genius; genera (plural) has e as in general.

    gibber, gibberish
              now usually with g as in gin; g as in give was formerly frequent
              in the first word and normal in the second.

    glacial   lst a as in glade.

    golf      o as in got.  The pronunciation goff is old-fashioned.

    gone      o as in on.  The pronunciation gawn is non-standard.

    government
               In careful speech, do not drop the 1st n (or the whole 2nd
              syllable).

    gratis    a properly as in grate; but grahtis and grattis are commonly
              heard.

    greasy     s may be as in cease or easy.

    grievous   does not rhyme with previous.

    gunwale   gunn'l.

    half-past  In careful speech, avoid saying hah past or hoff posst.

    harass(ment)
              stress on 1st syllable (Amer. often on 2nd).

    have      in rapid speech, the weakstressed infinitive have is reduced to
              've and sounds like the weakly stressed form of the preposition
              of. When stress is restored to it, it should become have, not
              of, as in 'You couldn't 've done it', 'I could have' (not 'I
              could of').

    hectare   2nd syllable like tar, not tare.

    hegemony  stress on 2nd syllable, g as in get or (as also Amer.) as in
              gem.

    Hegira    stress on 1st syllable, which is like hedge.

    heinous   ei as in rein.

    homo-     (prefix = same): o as in from.

    homoeopath
              1st two syllables rhyme with Romeo.

    homogeneous
              last three syllables sound like genius.

    honorarium
              h silent, a as in rare.

    hospitable
              stress properly on 1st syllable.

    hotel     h to be pronounced.

    housewifery
              stress on 1st syllable, i as in whiff

    hovel, hover
              o as in hot.  The former pronunciation with o as in love is now
              only Amer.

    idyll     i as in idiot; it may be like i in idea in idyllic (with stress
              on 2nd syllable) and usually is in idyllist (with stress on 1st
              syllable).

    illustrative
              stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

    imbroglio g is silent; rhymes with folio.

    impious   stress on 1st syllable; on 2nd in impiety.

    importune stress on 3rd syllable or (with some speakers) on 2nd.

    inchoate  stress on 1st syllable.

    indict    c is silent; rhymes with incite.

    indisputable
              stress on 3rd syllable.

    inexplicable
              stress originally on 2nd syllable, but now usually on 3rd.

    infamous  stress on 1st syllable.

    inherent  1st e as in here.

    intaglio  g is silent, a as in pal or pass.

    integral  stress on 1st syllable.

    intern    (verb): stress on 2nd syllable; (noun, Amer.) on 1st.

    internecine
              stress on 3rd syllable, last two syllables like knee sign.

    interstice
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    intestinal
              stress on 2nd syllable; 3rd syllable like tin.

    intricacy stress on 1st syllable.

    invalid   (sick person): stress on 1st syllable, 2nd as in lid or machine;
              (verb) stress on 1st or 3rd syllable, 2nd i as in machine; (not
              valid) stress on 2nd syllable.

    inveigle  originally rhyming with beagle, but now commonly with Hegel.

    inventory like infantry with v instead of f.

    irrefragable
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    irrelevant
               not irrevalent, a blunder sometimes heard.

    irreparable
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    irrevocable
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    issue     ss as in mission; but pronunciation to rhyme with miss you is
              very common.

    isthmus   do not drop the th.

    January   jan-yoor-y (Amer.  jan-yoo-erry).

    jejune    stress on 2nd syllable.

    jewellery jewel-ry.  Not jool-ery.

    joule     (unit): rhymes with fool.

    jubilee   stress on 1st syllable  Not 3rd.

    jugular   1st syllable like jug:  formerly as in conjugal.

    junta     pronounce as written.  Hoonta, an attempt to reproduce the
              Spanish pronunciation, is chiefly Amer.

    kilometre stress on 1st syllable, as with kilocycle, kilolitre.  Not on
              2nd syllable; the pattern is that of millimetre, centimetre
              (units), not that of speedometer, milometer, etc. (devices).

    knoll     o as in no.

    laboratory
              stress on 2nd syllable.   The former pronunciation, with stress
              on 1st syllable, is now chiefly used by Amer. speakers (with o
              as in Tory).

    lamentable
              stress on 1st syllable.

    languor   as for clangour.

    lasso     stress on 2nd syllable, o as in do.

    lather    rhymes with gather, not rather.

    launch    rhymes with haunch, not branch.

    leeward   (in general use): lee-ward; (nautical) like lured.

    leisure   rhymes with pleasure (Amer.  with seizure).

    length    ng as in long.  Not lenth.

    levee     (reception, assembly): like levy; (Amer., embankment) may be
              stressed on 2nd syllable.

    library   in careful speech avoid dropping the 2nd syllable (li-bry).

    lichen    sounds like liken.

    lieutenant
              1st syllable like left; in Navy, like let (Amer. like loot).

    liquorice licker-iss.

    longevity ng as in lunge.

    longitude ng as in lunge.  Not (latitude and) longtitude, an error
              sometimes heard.

    long-lived
              originally rhyming with arrived, but now usually like past tense
              lived.

    lour      rhymes with hour.

    lugubrious
              loo-goo-brious.

    machete   ch as in attach; rhymes with Betty (or with some speakers,
              Katie).

    machination
              ch as in mechanical, not as in machine.

    machismo, macho
              ch as in attach, not as in mechanical.

    magazine  stress on 3rd syllable (Amer. and Northern pronunciation has
              stress on 1st).

    maieutic  1st syllable like may.

    mandatory stress on 1st syllable.

    margarine g as in Margery.

    marital   stress on 1st syllable.

    massage   stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

    matrix    a as in mate; matrices (plural) the same, with stress on 1st
              syllable.

    medicine  two syllables (med-sin).   The pronunciation with three
              syllables is normal in Scotland and the US, but disapproved of
              by many users of RP.

    mediocre  1st syllable like mead.

    metallurgy, -ist
              stress on 2nd syllable.  The older pronunciation with stress on
              1st syllable, becoming rare in Britain, is chiefly Amer.

    metamorphosis
              stress on 3rd syllable.

    metope    two syllables.

    midwifery stress on 1st syllable, i as in whiff

    mien      sounds like mean.

    migraine  1st syllable like me (Amer. like my).

    migratory stress on 1st syllable.

    millenary stress on 2nd syllable, which is like Len or lean.

    miscellany
              stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 1st).

    mischievous
              stress on 1st syllable.   Not rhyming with previous.

    misericord
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    mocha     (coffee): originally (and Amer.) rhyming with coca, now often
              like mocker.

    momentary, -ily
              stress on 1st syllable.

    municipal stress on 2nd syllable.

    nadir     nay-dear.

    nave     nah-Eve or nigh-Eve.

    navety   has 3 syllables.

    nascent   a as in fascinate.

    necessarily
              in formal speech, has stress on 1st syllable, with reduction or
              elision of a; informally, especially in emphatic use, stressed
              on 3rd syllable (e.g. not necessarily!).

    neither   as for either.

    nephew    ph sounds like v (Amer. like f).

    nicety    has three syllables.

    niche     nitch has been the pronunciation for two or three centuries;
              neesh, now common, is remodelled on the French form.

    nomenclature
              stress on 2nd syllable. The pronunciation with stress on 1st and
              3rd syllables is now chiefly Amer.

    nonchalant
              stress on 1st syllable, ch as in machine.

    nuclear   newk-lee-er.  Not as if spelt nucular.

    nucleic   stress on 2nd syllable, which has e as in equal.

    obdurate  stress on 1st syllable.

    obeisance 2nd syllable like base.

    obligatory
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    obscenity e as in scent.

    occurrence
              2nd syllable like the 1st in current.

    o'er      (poetry, over): sounds like ore.

    of        see have.

    often     the t is silent, as in soften.

    ominous   1st syllable as that of omelette.

    ophthalmic
              ph =f not p.

    opus      o as in open.

    ormolu    orm-o-loo with weak 2nd o as in Caroline.

    p         (abbreviation for penny, pence):  in formal context, say penny
              (after 1) or pence.  'Pee' is informal only.

    pace      (with all due respect to): like pacey.

    paella    pah-ell-a.

    panegyric stress on 3rd syllable, g as in gin, y as in lyric.

    paprika   stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

    pariah    the older pronunciation has the stress on 1st syllable, rhyming
              with carrier; the pronunciation with stress on 2nd syllable,
              rhyming with Isaiah, is now common (and normal Amer.).

    participle
              stress on 1st syllable; 1st i may be dropped.

    particularly
              in careful speech, avoid dropping the 4th syllable (particuly).

    partisan  as artisan.

    pasty     (pie): a now usually as in lass; the older sound, as in past, is
              sometimes used in Cornish pasty.

    patent    1st syllable like pate.  Some who use this pronunciation for
              the general sense, have 1st syllable like pat in Patent Office,
              letters patent.

    pathos    as for bathos.

    patriarch 1st a as in paper.

    patriot(ic)
              a as in pat or paper.

    patron, patroness
              a as in paper.

    patronage, patronize
              a as in pat.

    pejorative
              stress on 2nd syllable.

    peremptory
              stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 1st).

    perhaps   in careful speech, two syllables with h, not r, sounded;
              informally praps.

    pharmacopoeia
              stress on oe; -poeia rhymes with idea.

    philharmonic
              2nd h is silent.

    phthisis  ph is silent.

    pianist   stress on 1st i, ia as in Ian

    piano     (instrument): a as in man; (musical direction) a as in calm.

    piazza    zz = ts.

    pistachio a as in calm or man, ch as in machine.

    plaid, plait
              rhyme with lad, flat.

    plastic   rhymes with fantastic.  The pronunciation with a as in calm
              sounds affected to many people.

    pogrom    originally with stress on the 2nd syllable (as in Russian); now
              usually on the 1st.

    pomegranate
              the older pronunciation was with 1st e silent, o as in come or
              from, and stress either on o or the 1st a; the pronunciation
              pom-gran-it is still used by some speakers, but pommy-gran-it is
              now usual.

    porpoise  oise like ose in purpose.

    posthumous
              h is silent.

    pot-pourri
              stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 3rd), pot- like Poe.

    precedence
              originally with stress on 2nd syllable, now usually on 1st,
              which sounds like press.

    precedent (adjective): stress on 2nd syllable; (noun) as for precedence.

    precedented
              as for precedence.

    preferable
              stress on 1st syllable.

    premise   (verb): stress on 2nd syllable, rhyming with surmise.

    prestige  stress on 2nd syllable, i and g as in rgime.

    prestigious
              rhymes with religious.

    prima facie
              pry-ma fay-shee.

    primarily stress on 1st syllable, with a reduced or elided.  The
              pronunciation with stress on the 2nd syllable, used by some (but
              not all) Americans, is disapproved of by many users of RP.

    Primates  (order of mammals) originally with 3 syllables, but now often
              with 2.

    primer    (elementary school-book): i as in prime.  The older
              pronunciation with i as in prim survives in Australia and New
              Zealand.

    privacy   i as in privet or private; the former is probably commoner; the
              latter is the older and Amer. pronunciation.

    probably  in careful speech, 3 syllables; informally often probbly.

    proboscis pro-boss-iss.

    process   (noun): o as in probe.  An older pronunciation with o as in
              profit is now only Amer.

    process   (verb, to treat): like the noun; (to walk in procession) stress
              on 2nd syllable.

    promissory
              stress on 1st syllable.

    pronunciation
              2nd syllable like nun.  Not pro-noun-ciation.

    prosody   1st syllable like that of prospect.

    protean   stress on 1st syllable.

    protg   1st syllable like that of protestant (Amer. like that of
              protest).

    proven    o as in prove.

    proviso   2nd syllable as that of revise.

    puissance (show-jumping):  pronounced with approximation to French, pui =
              pwi, a nasalized; (in poetry) may be pwiss-ance or pew-iss-ance,
              depending on scansion.

    pursuivant
              Percy-vant.

    pyramidal stress on 2nd syllable.

    quaff     rhymes with scoff

    quagmire  a originally as in wag, now usually as in quad.

    qualm     rhymes with calm; the older pronunciation, rhyming with shawm,
              is now rare.

    quandary  stress on 1st syllable; the older pronunciation, with stress on
              2nd syllable, is rarely, if ever, heard.

    quasi     the vowels are like those in wayside.

    quatercentenary
              kwatt-er-, not quarter-.

    questionnaire
              1st two syllables like question.

    rabid     1st syllable like that of rabbit.

    rabies    2nd syllable like bees, not like the 2nd syllable of babies.

    rampage   (verb): stress on 2nd syllable; (noun) on 1st syllable.

    rapport   stress on 2nd syllable, which sounds like pore (Amer. like
              port).

    ratiocinate
              1st two syllables like ratty, stress on 3rd.

    rationale ale as in morale.

    really    rhymes with ideally, clearly, not with freely.

    recess    (noun and verb): stress on 2nd syllable.

    recognize  do not drop the g.

    recondite stress on 1st or 2nd syllable. The former is the commoner, the
              latter, the older, pronunciation.

    recuperate
              2nd syllable like the 1st of Cupid.

    referable stress on 1st syllable.

    remediable, -al
              stress on 2nd syllable, e as in medium.

    remonstrate
              stress on 1st syllable; the older pronunciation, with stress on
              2nd syllable, is rare.

    Renaissance
              stress on 2nd syllable, ai as in plaice.

    renege    the traditional pronunciation rhymes with league.  A
              pronunciation to rhyme with plague, for long dialectal, is now
              common.  g is hard as in get, not as in allege.

    reportage age as in camouflage, but with stress.

    research  (noun): stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 1st).

    respite   stress on 1st syllable, 2nd like spite (Amer. like spit).

    restaurant
              pronunciation with final t silent and second a nasalized is
              preferred by many, but that with ant = ont is widespread.

    revanchism
              anch as in ranch.

    ribald    1st syllable like rib.

    risible   rhymes with visible.

    risqu     rees-kay or riss-kay.

    romance   stress on 2nd syllable.  Pronunciation with stress on 1st
              syllable, usually in sense 'love affair, love story', is
              non-standard (except when used jocularly).

    Romany    1st syllable as that of Romulus.

    rotatory  stress on 1st syllable.

    rowan     ow. often as in low, although in Scotland, whence the word
              comes, it is as in cow.

    rowlock   rhymes with Pollock.

    sacrilegious
              now always rhymes with religious.

    sahib     sah-ib.

    salsify   sal-si-fee.

    salve     (noun, ointment; verb, soothe): properly rhymes with halve, but
              now usually with valve (Amer. with have).

    salve     (save ship): rhymes with valve.

    satiety   as for dubiety.

    Saudi     rhymes with rowdy, not bawdy.

    scabies   as for rabies.

    scabrous  1st syllable like that of scabious (Amer. like scab).

    scallop   rhymes with wallop.

    scarify   (make an incision): rhymes with clarify.  Not to be confused
              with slang scarify (terrify) pronounced scare-ify.

    scenario  sc as in scene, ario as in impresario (Amer. with a as in Mary).

    schedule  sch as in Schubert (Amer.  as in school).

    schism    properly, ch is silent (siz'm); but skiz'm is often heard.

    schist    (rock): sch as in Schubert.

    schizo-   skitso.

    scilicet  1st syllable like that of silent.

    scone     rhymes with on.

    second    (to support): stress on 1st syllable; (to transfer) on 2nd.

    secretary sek-re-try.  Not sek-e-try or sek-e-terry or (Amer.)
              sek-re-terry.

    secretive stress on 1st syllable.

    seise, seisin
              ei as in seize.

    seismic   1st syllable like size.

    seraglio  g silent, a as in ask.

    sheik     sounds like shake (Amer. like chic).

    simultaneous
              i as in simple (Amer.  as in Simon).

    sinecure  properly, i as in sign, but i as in sin is common.

    Sinhalese sin-hal-ese.

    Sioux     soo.

    sisal     1st syllable like the 2nd of precise.

    sixth     in careful speech, avoid the pronunciation sikth.

    slalom    a as in spa.

    slaver    (dribble): a as in have.

    sleight   sounds like slight.

    sloth     rhymes with both.

    slough    (bog): rhymes with bough; (to cast a skin) with tough.

    sobriquet 1st syllable like that of sober.

    sojourn   1st o as in sob (Amer. as in sober).

    solder    o as in sob (Amer.  pronunciation is sodder or sawder).

    solecism  o as in sob.

    solenoid  stress on 1st syllable, o as in sober or as in sob.

    sonorous  stress on 1st syllable, 1st o as in sob.

    soporific 1st o now usually as in sob (formerly also as in sober).

    sough     (rushing sound): rhymes with tough.

    sovereignty
              sov'renty.  Not sov-rain-ity.

    Soviet    o as in sober. The pronunciation with o as in sob is also very
              common.

    species   ci as in precious. Not spee-seez.

    spinet     may be stressed on either syllable.

    spontaneity
              as for deify, deity.

    stalwart  1st syllable like stall.

    status    1st syllable like stay.  Not statt-us.

    stigmata  stress on 1st syllable.  Not with ata as in sonata.

    strafe    rhymes with staff.

    stratosphere
              a as in Stratford.

    stratum, strata
              a of first syllable like 1st a of sonata.

    strength  ng as in strong.  Not strenth.

    suave, suavity
              a as 1st a in lava.

    subsidence
              stress originally on 2nd syllable with i as in side;
              pronunciation with stress on 1st syllable and i as in sit is
              increasingly common.

    substantial
              1st a as in ant, not aunt.

    substantive
              (in grammar): stress on 1st syllable; (having separate
              existence, permanent) on 2nd syllable.

    suffragan g as in get.

    supererogatory
              stress on 4th syllable.

    superficies
              super-fish-(i-)eez.

    supine    (adjective): stress on 1st syllable (Amer.  on 2nd).

    suppose    in careful speech, avoid the elision of the u; informal l
              s'pose so, s'posing it happens?

    surety    now usually three syllables (sure-et-y); originally two
              (sure-ty).

    surveillance
               do not drop the l; sur-vey-lance, not sur-vey-ance.

    suzerain  u as in Susan.

    swath     a as in water; in plural, th as in paths.

    syndrome  two syllables (formerly three).

    taxidermist
               stress on 1st or 3rd syllable.

    temporarily
              stress on 1st syllable (with weakening or dropping of o):
              temp-ra-rily.  Not tempo-rar-ily.

    Tibetan   2nd syllable like bet, not beat.

    tirade    tie-raid.

    tissue    as for issue.

    tonne     sounds like ton.  To avoid misunderstanding, metric can be
              prefixed; but in most spoken contexts the slight difference
              between the imperial and metric weights will not matter.

    tortoise  as for porpoise.

    tourniquet
              3rd syllable like the 2nd of croquet (Amer. like kit).

    towards   the form with two syllables is now the most common; some
              speakers use the pronunciation tords in all contexts, others
              only in some.

    trachea   stress on e (Amer. on 1st a, pronounced as in trade).

    trait     2nd t is silent (in Amer.  pronunciation, it is sounded).

    trajectory
              stress properly on 1st syllable; now often (and Amer.) on 2nd.

    transferable
              stress on 1st syllable is implied by the single r (see "doubling
              of final consonant" in topic 1.16; but the form transferrable
              was formerly common, and accounts for the common pronunciation
              with stress on 2nd syllable.

    transition
               tran-sizh-on or tran-zish-on.

    transparent
               last two syllables either like those of apparent or like
              parent.

    trauma, traumatic
              au as in cause (Amer. as in gaucho).

    traverse  (noun): stress on 1st syllable; (verb) on 2nd syllable.  (The
              original pronunciation of the verb exactly like the noun is
              still usual in Amer. English.)

    trefoil   stress on 1st syllable, e as in even or as in ever.

    triumvir  1st two syllables like those of triumphant.

    troth     rhymes with both (Amer. with cloth).

    trow      rhymes with know.

    truculent 1st u as in truck; formerly as in true.

    turquoise  tur-kwoyz or tur-kwahz.

    ululate   yool-yoo-late. The alternative pronunciation ull-yoo-late seems
              now to be chiefly Amer.

    umbilical stress on 2nd syllable.

    unprecedented
              2nd syllable like press.

    untoward  the older pronunciation rhymed with lowered, but the
              pronunciation with stress on the 3rd syllable is now usual.

    Uranus    stress on 1st syllable.

    urinal    stress on 1st syllable.

    usual     in careful speech, avoid complete loss of u (yoo-zh'l).

    uvula     yoo-vyoo-la.

    uxorious  1st u as Uxbridge.

    vagary    the original pronunciation was with stress on 2nd syllable, but
              this has been almost entirely superseded by that with stress on
              1st syllable.

    vagina, vaginal
              stress on 2nd syllable, as in china.

    valance   rhymes with balance.

    valence, -cy
              (chemistry): a as in ale.

    valet     those who employ them sound the t.

    Valkyrie  stress on 1st syllable.

    vase      a as in dance (Amer. rhymes with face or phase).

    veld      sounds like felt.

    venison   the old pronunciation ven-z'n is now rare; ven-i-z'n or
              ven-i-s'n are usual.

    veterinary
              stress on 1st syllable, with reduction or elision of 2nd e and a
              (vet-rin-ry).  Not vet-nar or (Amer.) vet-rin-ery.

    vice      (in the place of): rhymes with spicy.

    vicegerent
               three syllables, 2nd e as in errant.

    victualler, victuals
              sound like vitt-ell-er, vittles.

    viola     (instrument): stress on 2nd syllable, i as in Fiona; (flower)
              stress on 1st syllable, i as in vie.

    vitamin   i as in hit (Amer. as in vital).

    viz.      (=videlicet): when reading aloud, it is customary to substitute
              namely; 'viz' is chiefly jocular.

    voluntarily
              stress on 1st syllable.

    waistcoat the older pronunciation was wess-kot (with 2nd syllable like
              that of mascot); but the pronunciation as spelt has replaced it,
              except among older speakers.

    walnut, walrus
               do not drop the l.

    werewolf  1st syllable like weir.

    whoop     (cry of excitement, whoop it up): = woop; (cough, whooping
              cough) = hoop; both rhyme with loop.

    wrath     rhymes with cloth (Amer. with hath).

    wroth     as for troth.

    yoghurt   yogg-urt (Amer. yoh-gurt).

    zoology   in careful speech, best pronounced with 1st o as in zone; there
              are a number of other compounds of zoo- in technical use, in
              which this is the normal pronunciation.

 3.0 Vocabulary
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

           The perfect use of language is that in which every word
           carries the meaning that it is intended to, no less and
           no more.
                 (C. Connolly, Enemies of Promise)

    THIS section is concerned with problems of meaning, construction,
    derivation, and diction, associated with individual words. The main aim is
    to recommend the meaning or construction most appropriate for serious
    writing or formal speaking, but some attention is paid to informal and
    American usage.

    aboriginal
              (noun) should be used in formal contexts as the singular of
              aborigines; Aboriginal, Aboriginals (with capitals) are
              preferable for singular and plural when referring to the
              aboriginal inhabitants of Australia.
               Aborigine is informal only.

    account,  to reckon, consider, is not followed by as, e.g. Mere
              morality...was once accounted a shameful and cynical thing (G.
              B. Shaw).

    affect,   to have an influence on, e.g. Hugh was immensely affected by the
              way Randall had put it (Iris Murdoch).
               Do not confuse with effect to accomplish, e.g. He picked at
              the German's lapel, hoping to effect a closer relationship by
              touch (Patrick White).
               There is a noun effect 'result, property', e.g. to good
              effect, personal effects, sound effects; but there is no noun
              affect except in the specialized language of Psychology.

    affinity  between or with, not to or for, since mutual relationship or
              attraction is meant, e.g. Ann felt an affinity with them, as she
              too were an old dusty object (Iris Murdoch); Points of affinity
              between Stephen and Bloom (Anthony Burgess).

    afflict:  see inflict

    aftermath can be used of any after-effects, e.g. The aftermath of the
              wedding seemed to mean different things to different people (The
              Times). It is pedantic to object to the sense 'unpleasant
              consequences' on the ground of derivation.

    agenda    (from a Latin plural) is usually a singular noun (with plural
              agendas), e.g. It's a short agenda, by the way (Edward Hyams).
              But it is occasionally found in its original use as a plural
              meaning 'things to be done' or 'items of business to be
              considered' (singular agend).

    aggravate (1) To make worse, e.g.  The war...simply aggravates the
              permanent human situation (C. S.  Lewis). (2) To annoy,
              exasperate.
               Sense (2) is regarded by some people as incorrect, but is
              common informally. The participial adjective aggravating is
              often used in sense (2) by good writers, e.g. He had pronounced
              and aggravating views on what the United States was doing for
              the world (Graham Greene).

    ain't     (= are not, is not, have not has not) is not used in Standard
              English except in representations of dialect speech, or
              humorously.  Aren't (= are not) is also a recognized
              colloquialism for am not in the interrogative construction
              aren't I.

    alibi,    a plea that when an alleged act took place one was elsewhere.
               The sense 'an excuse' is informal and to many people
              unacceptable, e.g. Low spirits make you seem complaining...I
              have an alibi because I'm going to have a baby (L. P. Hartley).

    all of    (= the whole of, the entirety of, every one of) is usual before
              pronouns, e.g. And so say all of us, or emphatically, often
              paralleling none of etc., before nouns, e.g.  Marshall Stone has
              all of the problems but none of the attributes of a star
              (Frederick Raphael).  Otherwise all + noun is normal, e.g.  All
              the King's men.
               The general use of all of before nouns is Amer. only.

    all right.
              This phrase is popularly thought of as a unit, e.g. an all-right
              bloke, but its unitary nature has not yet been recognized in
              spelling by the standard language, probably because the
              expression remains largely an informal one.
               Alright, though widely seen in the popular press, remains
              non-standard, even where the standard spelling is somewhat
              cumbersome, as in: I just wanted to make sure it was all all
              right (Iris Murdoch).

    allude    means 'refer indirectly'; an allusion is 'an indirect
              reference', e.g. He would allude to her, and hear her discussed,
              but never mention her by name (E. M. Forster).
               The words are not, except very informally, mere synonyms for
              refer, reference.

    alternative
              (adjective and noun).  The use of alternative with reference to
              more than two options, though sometimes criticized, is
              acceptable, e.g. We have been driven to Proletarian Democracy by
              the failure of all the alternative systems (G. B. Shaw).
               Do not confuse with alternate happening or following in turns,
              e.g. Just as every sense is afflicted with a fitting torment so
              is every spiritual faculty;...the sensitive faculty with
              alternate longing and rage (James Joyce).

    altogether.
               Beware of using this when all (adjective) together (adverb) is
              meant, e.g. The dogs were now running, all together.The reverse
              error, of using all together for the adverb altogether, should
              also be avoided; altogether is correct in There's too much going
              on altogether at the moment (Evelyn  Waugh).

    amend,    to alter to something that sounds better, make improvements in;
              to make better e.g. If you consider my expression inadequate I
              am willing to amend it (G. B. Shaw); I have amended my life,
              have I not? (James Joyce); noun amendment.
               Do not confuse with emend to remove errors from (something
              written), e.g. An instance of how the dictionary may be emended
              or censored (Frederic Raphael); noun emendation. An emendation
              will almost always be an amendment, but the converse is not
              true.

    analogous means 'similar in certain respects'.  It is not a mere synonym
              for similar.

    anticipate
              (1) To be aware of (something) in advance and take suitable
              action, to deal with (a thing) or perform (an action) before
              someone else has had time to act so as to gain an advantage, to
              take action appropriate to (an event) before the due time, e.g.
              His power to anticipate every change of volume and tempo (C. Day
              Lewis); I shall anticipate any such opposition by tendering my
              resignation now (Angus Wilson); She had anticipated execution by
              suicide (Robert Graves); Some unknown writer in the second
              century...suddenly anticipated the whole technique of
              modern...narrative (C. S. Lewis).
              (2) To take action before (another person) has had the
              opportunity to do so, e.g. I'm sorry--do go on. I did not mean
              to anticipate you (John le Carr).
              (3) To expect (used only with an event as a direct object), e.g.
              Serious writers...anticipated that the detective story might
              supersede traditional fiction; Left-wing socialists really
              anticipated a Fascist dictatorship (A. J. P. Taylor).
               Sense (3) is well established in informal use, but is regarded
              as incorrect by many people. Use expect in formal contexts. In
              any case, anticipate cannot be followed, as expect can, by
              infinitive constructions (I expect to see him or him to come) or
              a personal object (I expect him today) and cannot mean 'expect
              as one's due' (I expect good behaviour from pupils).

    antithetical to
              means 'characterize by direct opposition to'; it is not a mere
              synonym for opposed to.

    approve   (1) (Followed by direct object) authorize, e.g. I will give
              letters of introduction to persons approved by you (NEB).
              (2) (Followed by of) consider good, e.g. All the books approved
              of by young persons of cultivated taste (C. P. Snow).
               Approve should not be used in sense (2) with a direct object,
              as (wrongly) in Laziness, rudeness, and untidiness are not
              approved in this establishment (correctly, approved of).

    apt,      followed by the to-infinitive, carries no implication that the
              state or action expressed by the infinitive is undesirable from
              the point of view of its grammatical subject (though it often is
              from that of the writer), e.g. In weather like this he is apt to
              bowl at the batsman's head (Robert Graves). It indicates that
              the subject of the sentence is habitually predisposed to doing
              what is expressed by the verb, e.g.  Time was apt to become
              confusing (Muriel Spark).  Compare liable, which, however, is
              not complementary to apt to, but overlaps with it; apt to,
              followed by a verb with undesirable overtones, = 'habitually or
              customarily liable to'.

    aren't    see ain't.

    Argentine, Argentinian
              can be both noun (a native of Argentina) and adjective (=
              belonging to Argentina).
               Only the former is used in Argentine Republic, and it also has
              the advantage of brevity when used in other contexts.  It rhymes
              with turpentine.

    artiste,  a professional singer, dancer, or similar public performer:
              used of persons of either sex.

    as        (1) = that, which, or who (relative) is now non-standard except
              after same, such, e.g. Such comments as seem to be needed
              (George Orwell); but not I know somebody who knows this kid as
              went blind (Alan Sillitoe, representing regional speech).
              (2) = that (conjunction), introducing a noun clause, is now
              non-standard, e.g. in I don't know as you'll like it.

    Asian     is to be preferred when used of persons to Asiatic, which is now
              widely considered derogatory; the formation of Asian is in any
              case more closely parallel to that of European, African, etc.
              Asiatic is acceptable in other contexts, e.g.  Asiatic coastal
              regions; The Royal Asiatic Society; Asiatic cholera.

    as from   is used in formal dating to mean 'from' or 'after' and followed
              by an actual date, e.g. As from 10 p.m. on 15 October. As of,
              originally Amer., has the same meaning and use.
               As of now, yesterday, and the like, are informal and humorous
              only.

    aside from
              Amer., = apart from, except for.

    as if, as though
              (1) Followed by the past tense when the verb refers to an unreal
              possibility (i.e. when the statement introduced by as if, as
              though is untrue, or unlikely), e.g.  Every critic writes as if
              he were infallible (Cyril Connolly); It's not as though he lived
              like a Milord (Evelyn Waugh).  (2) Followed by the present tense
              when the statement is true, or might be true; this is especially
              common when the verbs look or sound precede, e.g. I suppose you
              get on pretty well with your parents. You look as though you do
              (Kingsley Amis); He speaks as though even the rules which we
              freely invent are somehow suggested to us in virtue of their
              being right (Mary Warnock).

    attention.
              Someone called it to my attention (Alison Lurie) represents an
              illogical reversal of the idiom, not uncommon in speech; someone
              called (or drew) my attention to it or someone brought it to my
              attention would be better in formal contexts.

    author    (verb) is a rarely required synonym for write; co-author,
              however, is acceptable as a verb.

    avenge:   one avenges an injured person or oneself on (occasionally
              against) an offender, or a wrong on an offender; the noun is
              vengeance (on), and the idea is usually of justifiable
              retribution, as distinct from revenge, though the distinction is
              not absolute.

    aware     is normally a predicative adjective followed by an of-phrase or
              a that-clause, but can also be preceded by an adverb in the
              sense 'aware of, appreciative of (the subject indicated by the
              adverb)', a chiefly Amer. use, e.g. The most intellectually
              ambitious and the most technically aware (W. S. Graham).
               To use aware without any qualifying word at all is modish but
              meaningless, e.g.  Aware, provincial, intelligent, tall
              Englishman (New Statesman).

    bacteria  is the plural of bacterium, not a singular noun.

    baluster, a short pillar with a curving outline, especially in a
              balustrade; banister, an upright supporting a stair handrail
              (usually in the plural).

    beg the question,
              to assume the truth of the thing which is to be proved, e.g. I
              scoffed at that pompous question-begging word 'Evolution' (H. G.
              Wells).
               It does not mean (1) to avoid giving a straight answer; or (2)
              to invite the obvious question (that...).

    behalf    on behalf of X (= in X's interest, as X's representative) should
              not be confused with on the part of x (= proceeding from or done
              by X); behalf cannot replace part in His death was largely due
              to panic on his part.

    benign    (in Medicine) has malignant as its antonym.

    beside    (preposition) is used of spatial relationships, or in figurative
              adaptations of these, e.g. Beside oneself with joy; Quite beside
              the question; We all seemed children beside him (Evelyn Waugh);
              besides = in addition to, other than, e.g. Besides this I
              started my second year by joining the Ruskin School of Art
              (Evelyn Waugh).

    between.  There are no grounds for objection to the use of between 'to
              express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things
              severally and collectively' (OED); among should not be
              substituted in, e.g., Cordial relations between Britain, Greece,
              and Turkey.
              see also choose between.

    bi-       (prefix). Biannual = appearing (etc.) twice a year, half-yearly;
              biennial = recurring (etc.) every two years, two-yearly.
              Bimonthly, bi-weekly, and bi-yearly are ambiguous in sense,
              meaning either 'twice a month (etc.)' or 'every two months
              (etc.)'; they are best avoided.
               Use twice a month or semi-monthly, twice a week or
              semi-weekly, and twice a year in the first sense, and every two
              months, fortnightly or every two weeks, and every two years in
              the second sense.

    billion,  etc. (1) Traditional British usage has a billion = a million
              million (1,000,000,000,000 = 10 to the power of 12), a trillion
              = a million to the power of 3 (10 to the power of 18), and a
              quadrillion = a million to the power of 4 (10 to the power of
              24); the logic is that the initial bi-, tri-, quadri-, etc.
              relate to the powers of a million.
              (2) The US usage makes each 'step' from million to quadrillion,
              and beyond, a power of 1,000; i.e.  million = 1000 to the power
              of 2, billion = 1000 to the power of 3, trillion = l000 to the
              power of 4, quadrillion = l000 to the power of 5.
              (3) For the quantity 'thousand million' (l000 to the power of 3
              = l0 to the power of 9), the older British term milliard is now
              rare.  Many people who have frequent need to refer to the
              quantity, namely astronomers and economists, use the American
              billion for this. Most British national newspapers have
              officially adopted it too.
               In general contexts it is probably safer to use thousand
              million (X,000 m.). But where the sense is vague, e.g. A billion
              miles away, Billions of stars, the exact value is immaterial.
              Note that American trillion (10 to the power of 12) =
              traditional British billion.

    but       = 'except', followed by a pronoun: see but, case following.

    candelabra
              is properly the plural of candelabrum and is best kept so in
              written English.
               Candelabra (singular), candelabras (plural) are frequent
              informally.

    censure,  to criticize harshly and unfavourably, e.g. Laura censured his
              immoral marriage (E. M. Forster).
               Do not confuse with censor to suppress (the whole or parts of
              books, plays, etc.).

    centre about, (a)round,
              meaning (figuratively) 'to gather, revolve, or turn around' is
              criticized by many authorities, though used by good writers,
              e.g. A rather restless, cultureless life, centring round tinned
              food, Picture Post, the radio and the internal combustion engine
              (George Orwell). It can be avoided by using to be centred in or
              on, e.g. My universe was still centred in my mother's fragrant
              person (Richard Church).

    century.  Strictly, since the first century ran from the year 1 to the
              year 100, the first year of a given century should be that
              ending in the digits 0l, and the last year of the preceding
              century should be the year before, ending in two noughts.
               In popular usage, understandably, the reference of these terms
              has been moved back one year, so that one will expect the
              twenty-first century to run from 2000 to 2099.  Beware of
              ambiguity in their written use.

    character.
              The use of this word after an adjective as a substitute for an
              abstract-noun termination (-ness, -ty, or the like), or for the
              word kind, devalues it and should be avoided, e.g. the
              uniqueness and antiquity of the fabric, not the unique and
              ancient character of the fabric.

    charisma  (1) Properly, a theological word (plural charismata) designating
              any of the gifts of the Holy Spirit (see I Corinthians 12). (2)
              In general use (usually as a mass noun, with no plural), a term
              (drawn from the works of the German sociologist Max Weber) for
              the capacity to inspire followers with devotion and enthusiasm.

    charismatic
              (1) Designating a Christian movement that lays stress on the
              charismata. (2) Generally, 'having the capacity to inspire with
              devotion and enthusiasm', e.g. A forcefully charismatic hero
              compensating in physical presence for what he politically lacks
              (Terry Eagleton).

    choose between:
              this construction and choice between, are normally followed by
              and in written English; informally or is sometimes used, e.g.
              The poorest girl alive may not be able to choose between being
              Queen of England or Principal of Newnham; but she can choose
              between ragpicking and flowerselling (G. B. Shaw).

    chronic   is used of a disease that is long-lasting, though its
              manifestations may be intermittent (the opposite is acute
              'coming sharply to a crisis'); it is used in much the same way
              of other conditions, e.g. The chronic unemployment of the
              nineteen-twenties (A. J. P.  Taylor); The commodities of which
              there is a chronic shortage (George Orwell).
               The sense 'objectionable, bad, severe' is very informal.

    comparable
              is followed by with in sense (1) of compare and by to in sense
              (2).  The latter is much the more usual use, e.g. The little
              wooden crib-figures...were by no means comparable to the
              mass-produced figures (Muriel Spark).

    compare.  In formal use, the following distinctions of sense are made:
              (1) 'Make a comparison of x with y', followed by with, e.g.
              You've got to compare method with method, and ideal with ideal
              (John le Carr).
              (2)'Say to be similar to, liken to', followed by to, e.g. To
              call a bishop a mitred fool and compare him to a mouse (G. B.
              Shaw).
              (3) Intransitively, = 'to be compared', followed by with, e.g.
              None can compare with thee (NEB).   Compare with is loosely
              used in sense (2); the senses overlap, e.g.  How can you compare
              the Brigadier with my father? (John Osborne).  Conversely, in
              the separate clause (as) compared with or to x, only sense (1)
              is possible, but to occurs as well as with, e.g.
              Tarzan...bewails his human ugliness as compared to the beauty of
              the apes (Tom Stoppard); Earth is tractable stuff compared with
              coal (George Orwell).

    comparison
              is usually followed by with, especially in by or in comparison
              with. It is followed by to when the sense is 'the action of
              likening (to)', e.g. The comparison of philosophy to a yelping
              she-dog (Jowett).

    complaisant,
              disposed to please others or comply with others' wishes; noun
              complaisance, e.g. The indulgent complaisance which Horace did
              not bother to disguise (Frederic Raphael).
               Do not confuse with complacent self-satisfied (noun
              complacency).

    compose   can be used to mean 'constitute, make up' with the constituents
              as subject and the whole as object, e.g. The tribes which
              composed the German nation. It is more commonly used in the
              passive with the whole as subject and the constituents as
              object, e.g.  His...face was composed of little layers of flesh
              like pallid fungus (Iris Murdoch).

    comprise. The proper constructions with comprise are the converse of those
              used with compose. (1) In the active, meaning 'consist of', with
              the whole as subject and the constituents as objects, e.g.  The
              faculty comprises the following six departments.
               In sense (1), comprise differs from consist in not being
              followed by of. Unlike include, comprise indicates a
              comprehensive statement of constituents.
              (2) In the passive, meaning 'to be embraced or comprehended in',
              with the constituents as subject and the whole as object, e.g.
              Fifty American dollars comprised in a single note (Graham
              Greene).
               Comprise is often used as a synonym of compose, e.g. The
              twenty-odd children who now comprise the school (Miss Read).
              This is regarded as incorrect by many people. It is especially
              objectionable in the passive, since comprise is not followed by
              of; write The faculty is composed (not comprised) of six
              departments.

    condole,  to express sympathy, is always followed by with, e.g. Many...had
              come...to condole with them on their brother's death (NEB).
               Do not confuse with console 'to comfort', followed by direct
              object, e.g. Console one another...with these words (NEB).

    conduce,  to lead or contribute (to a result), is always followed by to;
              similarly conducive (adjective); e.g. The enterprise was
              popular, since it conduced to cut price jobs (J. I. M. Stewart).

    conform   may be followed by to or with, e.g. The United Nations...
              conformed to Anglo-American plans (A. J. P. Taylor); Having
              himself no particular opinions or tastes he relied upon whatever
              conformed with those of his companion (John le Carr).

    congeries,
              a collection of things massed together, is a singular noun, e.g.
              A congeries of halls and inns on the site (J. I. M. Stewart); it
              is unchanged in the plural.
               The form congery, formed in the misapprehension that congeries
              is plural only, is erroneous.

    connote, denote.
              Connote means 'to imply in addition to the primary meaning, to
              imply as a consequence or condition', e.g. Literature has needed
              to learn how to exploit all the connotations that lie latent in
              a word (Anthony Burgess).
              Denote means 'to be the sign of, indicate, signify', e.g. A
              proper name will convey no information beyond the bare fact that
              it denotes a person (Stephen Ullman).
               The two terms are kept rigidly distinct in Logic, but in
              popular usage connote is frequently used to mean 'convey to the
              mind', or 'mean in actual use' and hence verges on the sense of
              denote. Denote cannot be used in the senses of connote, e.g. in
              His silence does not connote hesitation (Iris Murdoch).

    consequent,
              following as a result, adverb consequently, e.g. Two engaged in
              a common pursuit do not consequently share personal identity
              (Muriel Spark). These are nearly always to be used rather than
              consequential 'following as an indirect result' and
              consequentially, which are rarer and more specialized.

    consist   consist of = be composed of, made up of; consist in = have as
              its essential quality, e.g. All enjoyment consists in undetected
              sinning (G. B. Shaw).

    continual,
              always happening, very frequent and without cessation;
              continuous, connected, unbroken, uninterrupted; similarly the
              adverbs; e.g. He was continually sending Tiberius not very
              helpful military advice (Robert Graves); There was a continuous
              rattle from the one-armed bandits (Graham Greene).

    continuance, continuation.
              The former relates mainly to the intransitive senses of continue
              (to be still in existence), the latter to its transitive senses
              (to keep up, to resume), e.g. The great question of our
              continuance after death  (J. S. Huxley); As if contemplating a
              continuation of her assault (William Trevor).

    cousin    (1) The children of brothers or sisters are first cousins to
              each other. (2) The children of first cousins are second cousins
              to each other. (3) The child of one's first cousin, and the
              first cousin of one's parent, is one's first cousin once
              removed. (4) The grandchild of one's first cousin, or the first
              cousin of one's grandparent, is one's first cousin twice
              removed; and so on. (5) Cousin-german = first cousin.

    credible, able to be believed.
               Do not confuse with credulous, too ready to believe things, as
              e.g. in Even if one is credible (correctly credulous) enough to
              believe in their ability (Daily Telegraph).

    crescendo,
              used figuratively, means 'a progressive increase in force or
              effect'. Do not use it when climax is meant, e.g. in The storm
              reached a crescendo (correctly a climax) at midnight.

    criteria  is the plural of criterion, not a singular noun.

    crucial,  decisive, critical, e.g. His medical studies were not merely an
              episode in the development of his persona but crucial to it
              (Frederic Raphael).
               The weakened sense 'important' is informal only.

    data      (1) In scientific, philosophical, and general use usually
              considered as a number of items and treated as plural, e.g.  Let
              us give the name of 'sense-data' to the things which are
              immediately known in sensation: such things as colours, sounds,
              (etc.) (Bertrand Russell); The optical data are incomplete
              (Nature); the singular is datum, e.g. Personality is not a datum
              from which we start (C. S. Lewis).
              (2) In computing and allied disciplines it is treated as a mass
              noun (i.e. a collective item), and used with words like this,
              that, and much, and with singular verbs; it is sometimes so
              treated in general use, e.g. Useful data has been obtained
              (Winston Churchill).
               Some people object to use (2).
               Data is not a singular countable noun and therefore  cannotbe
              preceded by a, every, each, either, neither, and cannot be given
              a plural form datas.

    decidedly, decisively.
              Decidedly, definitely; undoubtedly, e.g.  The bungalow had a
              decidedly English appearance (Muriel Spark).  Decisively (1)
              conclusively, so as to decide the question, e.g. The definition
              of 'capital' itself depends decisively on the level of
              technology employed (E. F.  Schumacher); (2) resolutely,
              unhesitatingly, e.g. The young lady, whose taste has to be
              considered, decisively objected to him (G. B. Shaw).

    decimate, (originally) to kill or destroy one in every ten of; (now
              usually) to destroy or remove a large proportion of, e.g. All my
              parents' friends, my friends' brothers were getting killed. Our
              circle was decimated (Rosamond Lehmann).
               Decimate does not mean 'defeat utterly'.

    decline   (verb: to refuse an invitation) has no derived noun; we have to
              make do with refusal if declining cannot be used.

    definitive,
              decisive, unconditional, final; (of an edition) authoritative;
              e.g. The Gold Cup flat handicap, the official and definitive
              result of which he had read in the Evening Telegraph (James
              Joyce).
               Do not use instead of definite (= having exact limits,
              distinct, precise); it cannot replace the latter in We finally
              received a definite no.

    delusion, illusion.
              A general distinction can be drawn, though it is not absolute.
              Delusion would naturally occur in psychiatric contexts, and is
              used similarly outside them, to denote a false idea, impression,
              or belief held tenaciously, arising mainly from the internal
              workings of the mind; e.g.  delusions of grandeur, and He's been
              sent here for delusions. His most serious delusion is that he's
              a murderer (Robert Graves).
              Illusion denotes a false impression derived either from the
              external world, e.g.  optical illusion, and A partition making
              two tiny boxes, giving at least the illusion of privacy (Doris
              Lessing), or from faulty thinking, e.g. I still imagine I could
              live in Rome, but it may be an illusion (Iris Murdoch).
              It is in this second sense that illusion is almost equivalent to
              delusion; cf. I hope to strike some small blows for what I
              believe to be right, but I have no delusions that knock-outs are
              likely (Frederic Raphael). It should be remembered that delusion
              carries the sense of being deluded (by oneself or another),
              whereas no verb is implied in illusion; on the other hand, one
              can be said to be disillusioned, whereas delusion forms no such
              derivative.

    demean    (1) Demean oneself = conduct oneself (usually with adverbial
              expression), e.g. Even on the scaffold he demeaned himself with
              dignity. (2) Demean (someone or something) = lower in status,
              especially with oneself, e.g. Their nobles would not demean
              themselves to serve their governor (NEB).

    denote:   see connote.

    depend,   to be contingent on (a condition or cause), is followed by on or
              upon.
               The use of it depends followed, without on or upon, by an
              interrogative clause, is informal only, e.g. It depends what you
              have.. in mind in forming a library of gramophone records
              whether you think it worth acquiring (The Times).

    depreciate, deprecate.
              Depreciate (1) to make or become lower in value; (2) to
              belittle, disparage, e.g. To defend our record we seem forced to
              depreciate the Africans (Listener); To become a little more
              forthcoming and less self- depreciating (Richard Adams).
              Deprecate (1) (with a plan, proceeding, purpose, etc. as the
              object) to express a wish against or disapproval of, e.g. I
              deprecate this extreme course, because it is good neither for my
              pocket nor for their own souls (G. B. Shaw); Polly.. patted her
              father's head in deprecation of such forcible metaphor (Anthony
              Powell).
              (2) (with a person as the object) to express disapproval of, to
              reprove; to disparage, e.g. Anyone who has reprinted his reviews
              is in no position to deprecate our reprinter (Christopher
              Ricks).
               Sense (2) of deprecate tends to take on the sense of
              depreciate (2), especially in conjunction with self.  This use
              is frequently found in good writers, e.g. A humorous
              self-deprecation about one's own advancing senility (Aldous
              Huxley); The old, self-deprecating expression (Susan Hill). It
              is, however, widely regarded as incorrect.

    derisive  = scoffing; derisory = (1) scoffing, (2) so small or unimportant
              as to be ridiculous (now the more usual sense), e.g.  A
              part...once looked upon as discreditable and derisory (Anthony
              Powell).

    dialect   (form of speech) forms dialectal as its adjective; dialectic
              (form of reasoning) can be adjective as well as noun, or can
              have dialectical as its adjective.

    dice      is the normal singular as well as the plural (one dice, two
              dice); the old singular, die, is found only in the die is cast,
              straight (or true) as a die, and in mathematical discussions,
              e.g. Rolling a die will generate a stream of random numbers.

    dichotomy in non-technical use means 'differentiation into contrasting
              categories' and is frequently followed by between, e.g.  An
              absolute dichotomy between science and reason on the one hand
              and faith and poetry on the other.
               It does not mean dilemma or ambivalence.

    die       (noun): see dice.

    different can be followed by from to or than.
              (1) Different from is the most usual expression in both written
              and spoken English; it is the most favoured by good writers, and
              is acceptable in all contexts, e.g. It is also an 'important'
              book, in a sense different from the sense in which that word is
              generally used (George Orwell).
              (2) Different to is common informally. It sometimes sounds more
              natural than different from, and should then be used; e.g.  when
              yoked with similar and followed by a phrase introduced by to:
              His looks are neither especially similar nor markedly different
              to those of his twin brother.
              (3) Different than is an established idiom in American English,
              but is not uncommon in British use, e.g. Both came from a
              different world than the housing estate outside London (Doris
              Lessing).  Both different to and different than are especially
              valuable as a means of avoiding the repetition and the relative
              construction required after different from in sentences like I
              was a very different man in 1935 from what I was in 1916 (Joyce
              Cary).  This could be recast as I was a very different man in
              1935 than I was in 1916 or than in 1916. Compare The American
              theatre, which is suffering from a different malaise than ours,
              which is greatly preferable to suffering from a different
              malaise from that which ours is suffering from.
              This construction is especially common when different is part of
              an adverbial clause (e.g. in a different way) or when the adverb
              differently is used, and has been employed by good writers since
              the seventeenth century, e.g. Things were constructed very
              differently now than in former times (Trollope); Sebastian was a
              drunkard in quite a different sense to myself (Evelyn Waugh);
              Puts one in a different position to your own father (John
              Osborne).

    differential,
              a technical term Mathematics, an abbreviation for differential
              gear, or a term for a maintained difference in wage between
              groups of workers.
               It is not a synonym for difference.

    digraph   = a group of two letter standing for a single sound, e.g.  ea in
              head, gh in cough; ligature = a typographical symbol consisting
              of two letters joined together, e.g.  fi, fl. The term diphthong
              is best restricted to the sense for which there is no synonym,
              namely 'a union of two vowels pronounced in one syllable', which
              is something primarily spoken and heard, not written; i in find,
              ei in rein, and eau in bureau all represent diphthongs.  One
              cause of confusion is that Latin had two diphthongs (ae and oe)
              often printed as ligatures  and oe in English words derived
              from Latin these are now digraphs  and oe (sometimes modified
              into e:  see "ae and oe" in topic 1.4 representing single vowel
              sounds.

    dilemma   (1) A choice between two (or sometimes more than two)
              undesirable or awkward alternatives, e.g. The unpleasant dilemma
              of being obliged either to kill the father or give up the
              daughter. (2) More loosely, a perplexing situation in which a
              choice has to be made, e.g. The dilemma of the 1960s about
              whether nice girls should sleep with men (Alan Watkins).
               It is not merely a synonym for problem.

    diphthong:
              see digraph.

    direct    is used as an adverb in two of the main senses of the adjective:
              (1) straight, e.g. Another door led direct to the house (Evelyn
              Waugh); (2) without intermediaries, e.g. I appeal now, over your
              head, direct to the august oracle (G. B. Shaw).

    directly  is used in most of the main senses of the adjective, e.g. Why
              don't you deal directly with the wholesalers? (G. B. Shaw); The
              wind is blowing directly on shore; directly opposite, opposed.
               It is not usually used to mean 'straight', since it has an
              extra sense, used in similar contexts, 'immediately, without
              delay', e.g.  Just a night in London--I'll be back directly
              (Iris Murdoch).

    discomfit,
              to thwart, disconcert; similarly discomfiture; e.g.  He
              discomfited his opponents by obliging them to disagree with a
              great logician (Frederic Raphael).
               Do not confuse with discomfort (now rare as a verb, = make
              uneasy).

    disinterest,
              lack of interest, indifference, e.g. Buried the world under a
              heavy snowfall of disinterest (Christopher Fry).
               The use of disinterest in this sense may be objected to on the
              same grounds as sense (2) of disinterested; but the word is
              rarely used in any other sense, and the possible alternative
              uninterest is very rare indeed.

    disinterested
              (1) Impartial, unbiased, e.g. Thanks to his scientific mind he
              understood--a proof of disinterested intelligence which had
              pleased her (Virginia Woolf).  The noun is disinterestedness.
              (2) Uninterested, indifferent, e.g. It is not that we are
              disinterested in these subjects, but that we are better
              qualified to talk about our own interests (The Times). The noun
              is disinterest.
               Sense (2) is common in informal use, but is widely regarded as
              incorrect and is avoided by careful writers, who prefer
              uninterested.

    disposal  is the noun from dispose of (get off one's hands, deal with);
              disposition is the noun from dispose (arrange, incline).

    distinctive,
              serving to distinguish, characteristic, e.g. It had smelled like
              this soap today, a light, entirely distinctive smell (Susan
              Hill).
               Do not confuse with distinct, separate, individual, definite,
              e.g.  Trying to put into words an impression that was not
              distinct in my own mind (W. Somerset Maugham).

    drunk, drunken.
              In older and literary usage, the predicative and attributive
              forms respectively; now usually allocated to distinct senses,
              namely 'intoxicated' and 'given to drink', e.g. They were lazy,
              irresponsible, and drunken; but on this occasion they were not
              drunk. Drunken also means 'caused by or exhibiting drunkenness',
              e.g. a drunken brawl.

    due to    (1) That ought to be given to, e.g. Pay Caesar what is due to
              Caesar (NEB). (2) To be ascribed to, e.g. Half the diseases of
              modern civilization are due to starvation of the affections in
              the young (G. B. Shaw). Due is here an adjective with a
              complementary prepositional phrase, like liable (to), subject
              (to). As an adjective it needs to be attached to a noun as
              complement (see example above), or as part of a verbless
              adjective clause, e.g. A few days' temporary absence of mind due
              to sunstroke was...nothing to worry about (Muriel Spark).
              (3) = owing to. A sentence conforming to type (2) above like He
              suffered a few days' absence of mind due to sunstroke can be
              equated with He suffered a few days' absence of mind, owing to
              sunstroke. In this way due to has borrowed from owing to the
              status of independent compound preposition, a use not uncommon
              even with good writers, e.g. It...didn't begin until twenty past
              due to a hitch (William Trevor); Due to an unlikely run of
              nineteens and zeros, I gained the equivalent of three hundred
              pounds (Graham Greene).
               The use of due to as a compound preposition is widely regarded
              as unacceptable. It can often be avoided by the addition of the
              verb to be and that, e.g. It is due to your provident care
              that...improvements are being made (NEB).

    effect:   see affect.

    e.g., i.e.:
              E.g. (short for Latin exempli gratia) = for example, for
              instance; it introduces one or more typical examples of what
              precedes it: Many countries of Asia, e.g.  India, Indonesia, and
              Malaysia, were once ruled by European powers. I.e.  (short for
              Latin id est) = that is; it introduces an amplification or
              explanation of what precedes it: It was natural that the largest
              nation (i.e. India) should take the lead; The United States
              presence, i.e. the maintenance of American military personnel,
              in south-east Asia.

    egoism, -ist(ic), egotism, -ist(ic).
              Egoism is the term used in Philosophy and Psychology, and
              denotes self-interest (often contrasted with altruism), e.g.
              Egoistic instincts concerned with self-preservation or the good
              of the Ego (Gilbert Murray).  Egotism is the practice of talking
              or thinking excessively about oneself, self-centredness, e.g. He
              is petty, selfish, vain, egotistical; he is spoilt; he is a
              tyrant (Virginia Woolf).
               In practice the senses tend to merge, e.g. Human loves don't
              last, ...they are far too egoistic (Iris Murdoch); A complete
              egotist in all his dealings with women (Joyce Gary).

    egregious,
              remarkable in a bad sense; gross, outrageous; used mainly with
              words like ass, impostor, liar, blunder, folly, waste, e.g. Wark
              tenderly forgives her most egregious clerical errors (Martin
              Amis).

    either    (adjective and pronoun). (1) One or other of the two, e.g.
              Simple explanations are for simple minds.  I've no use for
              either (Joe Orton).  (2) Each of the two, e.g. Every few
              kilometres on either side of the road, there were Haitian and
              Dominican guard-posts (Graham Greene).
               Either is frequently used in sense (2), in preference to each,
              with reference to a thing that comes naturally in a pair, e.g.
              end, hand, side. This use is sometimes ignorantly condemned but
              is both the older sense of either and commonly found in good
              writers of all periods.

    elder     (adjective) the earlier-born (of two related or indicated
              persons), e.g. The first and elder wife...returned...to Jericho
              (Muriel Spark); He is my elder by ten years. Eldest first-born
              or oldest surviving (member of family, son, daughter, etc.).

    elusive   (rather than elusory) is the usual adjective related to elude;
              illusory (rather than illusive) is the usual adjective related
              to illusion.

    enjoin:   one can enjoin an action, etc., on someone, or enjoin someone to
              do something; the former is more usual; e.g. To...enjoin
              celibacy on its laity as well as on its clergy and That enables
              and enjoins the citizen to earn his own living (G. B. Shaw).

    enormity  (1) Great wickedness (of something), e.g. Hugh was made entirely
              speechless...by the enormity of the proposal (Iris Murdoch); a
              serious crime or offence, e.g. They had met to pass sentence on
              Wingfield for his enormities (David Garnett).
              (2) Enormousness, e.g. The war in its entire magnitude did not
              exist for the average civilian... The enormity of it was quite
              beyond most of us (G. B. Shaw).
               Sense (2) is commonly found, but is regarded by many people as
              incorrect.

    enthuse,  to show or fill with enthusiasm, is chiefly informal.

     equally as
              (+ adjective) should not be used for equally, e.g. in How to
              apply it in a calm, unruffled manner was equally as important
              (G. F. Newman), or for as, e.g. The Government are equally as
              guilty as the Opposition.

    event:    in the event of is followed by a noun or gerund, e.g.  In the
              event of the earl's death, the title will lapse.
               In the event that, treated as a compound conjunction, is
              ungainly and avoided by good writers; it is even worse with that
              omitted, e.g. In the event the car overturns.

    ever.     When placed after a wh-question word in order to intensify it,
              ever should be written separately, e.g. Where ever have you
              been?, when ever is he coming?, who ever would have thought it?,
              why ever did you do it?, how ever shall I escape? When used with
              a relative pronoun or adverb to give it indefinite or general
              force, ever is written as one word with it, e.g.  Wherever you
              go I'll follow; whenever he washes up he breaks something;
              there's a reward for whoever (not whomever) finds it; whatever
              else you do, don't get lost; however it's done, it's difficult.

    evidence, evince.
              Evidence (verb), to serve as evidence for the existence or truth
              of, e.g. There was an innate refinement...about Gerty which was
              unmistakably evidenced in her delicate hands (James Joyce).
              Evince, to show that one has a (hidden or unseen) quality, e.g.
              Highly evolved sentiments and needs (sometimes said to be
              distinctively human, though birds and animals... evince them)
              (G. B. Shaw).
               Evince should not be confused with evoke to call up (a
              response, a feeling, etc.), e.g. A timely and generous act which
              evoked afresh outburst of emotion (James Joyce).

    exceedingly,
              extremely; excessively, beyond measure, immoderately, e.g.  The
              excessively rational terms employed by people with a secret
              panic (Muriel Spark).

    excepting (preposition) is only used after not and always.

    exceptionable
              to which exception may be taken; unexceptionable with which no
              fault may be found, e.g.  The opposite claim would seem to him
              unexceptionable even if he disagreed with it (George Orwell).
               Do not confuse with (un)exceptional, that is (not) an
              exception, unusual.

    excess.   In excess of 'to a greater amount or degree than' forms an
              adverbial phrase.
               Prefer more than where the phrase qualified is the subject or
              object, e.g. in The Data Centre, which processes in excess of
              1200 jobs per week.

    expect    (1) in the sense 'suppose, think' is informal; (2) see
              anticipate.

    explicit, express
              Explicit, distinctly expressing all that is meant, leaving
              nothing implied, e.g. I had been too tactful,... too vague...But
              I now saw that I ought to have been more explicit (Iris
              Murdoch); express, definite, unmistakable in import, e.g.
              Idolatry fulsome enough to irritate Jonson into an express
              disavowal of it (G. B. Shaw).

    exposure (to)
              may be use figuratively to mean 'being made subject (to an
              influence, etc.)' but should not be used for experience (of),
              e.g. in Candidates who have had exposure to North American
              markets.

    express   (adjective): see explicit

    facility  in the sense 'ease in doing something', e.g. I knew that I had a
              facility with words (George Orwell), should not be confused with
              a similar sense of faculty, viz. 'a particular kind of ability',
              e.g.  Hess...had that odd faculty, peculiar to lunatics, of
              falling into strained positions (Rebecca West).

    factious: see fractious.

    factitious
              made for a special purpose; not natural; artificial; e.g. Heroic
              tragedy is decadent because it is factitious; it substitutes
              violent emotionalism for emotion (and) the purple patch for
              poetry (L. C. Knights); fictitious, feigned, simulated;
              imaginary, e.g. Afraid of being suspected, he gave a fictitious
              account of his movements.

    farther, farthest:
              though originally interchangeable with further, furthest, these
              words are now only used where the sense of 'distance' is
              involved, e.g. One whose actual dwelling lay presumably amid the
              farther mysteries of the cosmos (J. I. M. Stewart).
               Even in this sense many people prefer further, furthest.

    feasible  capable of being done, achieved, or dealt with, e.g. Young
              people believing that niceness and innocence are politically as
              well as morally feasible (J. I. M. Stewart).
               It is sometimes used to mean 'possible' or 'probable'; but
              whichever of these two words is appropriate should be used
              instead.

    fewer:    see less.

    fictitious:
              see factitious.

    flammable,
              easily set on fire; preferable as a warning of danger to
              inflammable, which may be mistaken for a negative (= not easily
              set on fire). The real negatives are non-flammable and
              non-inflammable.

    flaunt,   to display proudly or ostentatiously, e.g. The wicked flaunt
              themselves on every side (NEB); As though to defy reason, as
              though to flaunt a divine indestructibility, the question will
              not go away:  is God? (Tom Stoppard).
               Do not confuse with flout 'to disobey openly and scornfully',
              e.g.  His deliberate flouting of one still supposedly iron rule
              (Frederic Raphael): flout should have been used by the public
              figure reported as having said Those wanting to flaunt the
              policy would recognize that public opinion was not behind them.

    following,
              as a sequel to, consequent on, is used in two ways.  (1)
              Properly, as an adjective, dependent on a preceding noun, e.g.
              During demonstrations following the hanging of two British
              soldiers. (2) By extension, as an independent quasi-preposition,
              e.g. The prologue was written by the company following an
              incident witnessed by them.
               Many people regard use (2) as erroneous (cf. due to (3)).  It
              can also give rise to ambiguity, e.g.  Police arrested a man
              following the hunt. In any case, following should not be used as
              a mere synonym for after (e.g. Following supper they went to
              bed).

    for:      The subject of a clause of which the verb is the to-infinitive
              is normally preceded by for, e.g.  For him to stay elsewhere is
              unthinkable (contrast that he should stay elsewhere...) But if
              the clause is a direct object in a main sentence, for is
              omitted: hence I could not bear for him to stay elsewhere.
              (Daily Mail) is non-standard.

    forensic  (1) of or used in courts of law, e.g.  forensic medicine,
              forensic science; (2) of or involving  forensic science, e.g. An
              object which has been sent for forensic examination.
               Sense (2) is often deplored as an illogical extension, but is
              widespread.

    former (latter).
              When referring the first (last) of three or more, the first (the
              last) should he used, not the former (the latter).

    fortuitous
              means 'happening by chance, accidental', e.g. His presence is
              not fortuitous. He has a role to play (Andr Brink).
               It does not mean either 'fortunate' or 'timely', as
              (incorrectly) in He could not believe it. It was too fortuitous
              to be chance.

    fractious,
              unruly; peevish; e.g Block tackle and a strangling pully will
              bring your lion to heel, no matter how fractious (James Joyce).
               Do not confuse with factious 'given to, or proceeding from,
              faction', e.g.  In spite of such a divisive past and a fractious
              (correctly, factious) present (New York Times).

    fruition, fulfilment, especially in the phrase be brought to, come to,
              grow to, reach, etc. fruition, once stigmatized as a misuse, is
              now standard.

    fulsome   is a pejorative term, applied to nouns such as flattery,
              servility, affection, etc., and means 'cloying, excessive,
              disgusting by excess', e.g. They listened to fulsome speeches,
              doggedly translated by a wilting Olga Fiodorovna (Beryl
              Bainbridge).
               Fulsome is not now regarded as a synonym of copious, though
              this was its original meaning.

    further, furthest:
              see farther, farthest.

    geriatric means 'pertaining to the health and welfare of the elderly'; it
              is incorrect to use it as a synonym of senile or elderly, or as
              a noun meaning 'elderly or senile person'.

    gourmand, glutton; gourmet, connoisseur of good food.

    graffiti  is the plural of graffito; it is not a singular mass noun.

    half.     The use of half in expressions of time to mean half-past is
              indigenous to Britain and has been remarked on since the 1930s,
              e.g.  We'd easily get the half-five bus (William Trevor); it is
              to be distinguished from the use of half + the succeeding hour
              (i.e. half-nine = half-past eight) in parts of Scotland and
              Ireland. It remains non-standard.

    hardly    (1) Hardly is not used with negative constructions.
               Expressions like Without hardly a word of comment (substitute
              with hardly or almost without a word..) and I couldn't hardly
              tell what he meant (substitute I could hardly tell...) are
              non-standard.
              (2) Hardly and scarcely are followed by when or before, not
              than, e.g. Hardly had Grimes left the house when a tall young
              man...presented himself at the front door (Evelyn Waugh).

    heir apparent,
              one whose right of inheritance cannot be superseded by the birth
              of another heir; as opposed to an heir presumptive, whose right
              can be so superseded.
               Heir apparent does not mean 'seeming heir'.

    help.     More than, or as little as, one can help are illogical but
              established idioms, e.g.  They will not respect more than they
              can help treaties extracted from them under duress (Winston
              Churchill).

    hoi polloi
              can be preceded by the, even though hoi represents the Greek
              definite article, e.g. The screens with which working
              archaeologists baffle the hoi polloi (Frederic Raphael).

     homogenous
              is a frequent error for homogeneous, and is probably due partly
              to the form of the related verb homogenize. A word homogenous
              exists, but has a technical meaning that is quite different and
              very restricted in its use. Homogeneous means 'of the same kind,
              uniform', e.g. The style throughout was homogeneous but the
              authors' names were multiform (Evelyn Waugh).

    hopefully, thankfully.
              These adverbs are used in two ways: (1) As adverbs of manner =
              'in a hopeful/thankful way', 'with hope/gratitude', e.g.  The
              prevailing mentality of that deluded time was still hopefully
              parliamentary (G. B. Shaw); When it thankfully dawned on her
              that the travel agency would be open (Muriel Spark). (2) As
              sentence adverbs, outside the clause structure and conveying the
              speaker's comment on the statement, e.g. Hopefully they will be
              available in the autumn (Guardian); The editor, thankfully, has
              left them as they were written (TLS).
               Use (2) is widely regarded as unacceptable.  The main reason
              is that other commenting sentence adverbs, such as regrettably,
              fortunately, etc., can be converted to the form it is
              regrettable, fortunate, etc., that--, but these are to be
              resolved as it is to be hoped or one hopes that-- and one is
              thankful that--., (The same objection could be, but is not, made
              to happily and unhappily which mean one is (un)happy not it is
              (un)happy that--, e.g. in Unhappily children do hurt flies (Jean
              Rhys).) A further objection is that absurdity or ambiguity can
              arise from the interplay of senses (1) and (2), e.g. There is
              also a screen, hopefully forming a backdrop to the whole stage
              (Tom Stoppard); Any decision to trust Egypt...and move forward
              hopefully toward peace... in the Middle East (Guardian Weekly).
              This use of hopefully probably arose as a translation of German
              hoffentlich, used in the same way, and first became popular in
              America in the late 196Os; the same American provenance, but not
              the German, holds good for thankfully.  It is recommended that
              sense (2) should be restricted to informal contexts.

    i.e.:     see e.g., i.e.

    if        in certain constructions (usually linking two adjectives or
              adverbs that qualify the same noun or verb) can be ambiguous,
              e.g. A great play, if not the greatest, by this author.
               It is best to paraphrase such sentences as, e.g., either A
              great play, though not the greatest by this author or A great
              play, perhaps (or very nearly) the greatest by this author.

    ignorant  is better followed by of than by about, e.g. Is this famous
              teacher of Israel ignorant of such things? (NEB).

    ilk.      Of that ilk is a Scots term, meaning 'of the same place,
              territorial designation, or name', e.g. Wemyss of that ilk =
              Wemyss of Wemyss.
               By a misunderstanding ilk has come to mean 'sort, lot'
              (usually pejorative), e.g. Joan Baez and other vocalists of that
              ilk (David Lodge). This should be avoided in formal English.

    ill       used predicatively = 'unwell'; sick used predicatively = 'about
              to or likely to vomit, in the act of vomiting', e.g. I felt
              sick; I was violently sick; used attributively = 'unwell', e.g.
              a sick man, except in collocations like sick bay, sick leave.
               It is non-standard to use ill predicatively for 'in the act of
              vomiting' or sick predicatively for 'unwell' (though the latter
              is standard Amer.), except in the phrase off sick 'away on sick
              leave'.

    illusion: see delusion.

    illusory: see elusive.

    impact    used figuratively, is best confined to contexts in which someone
              or something is imagined as striking another, e.g. The most
              dynamic colour combination if used too often loses its impact
              (i.e., on the eye). It is weakened if used as a mere synonym for
              effect, impression, or influence.

    impedance.
              The total resistance of an electric circuit to the flow of
              alternating current.
               Do not confuse with impediment, a hindrance, a defect (in
              speech, etc.), e.g. Convinced of the existence of a serious
              impediment to his marriage (Evelyn Waugh).

    imply, infer.
              Imply (1) to involve the truth or existence of; (2) to express
              indirectly, insinuate, hint at. Infer (1) to reach (an opinion),
              deduce, from facts and reasoning, e.g. She left it to my
              intelligence to infer her meaning. I inferred it all right (W.
              Somerset Maugham); He is a philosopher's God, logically inferred
              from self-evident premises (Tom Stoppard). (2) = imply, sense
              (2), e.g. I have inferred once, and I repeat, that Limehouse is
              the most overrated excitement in London (H. V. Morton).
               Sense (2) of infer is generally unacceptable, since it is the
              reverse of the primary sense of the verb.

    imprimatur,
              official licence to print.
               Do not confuse with imprint, the name of the
              publisher/printer, place of publication/printing, etc., on the
              title-page or at the end of a book.

    inapt, inept.
              Inapt = 'not apt', 'unsuitable'; inept = (1) without aptitude,
              unskilful, e.g. Fox-trots and quicksteps, at which he had been
              so inept (David Lodge); (2) inappropriate, e.g. Not much less
              than famous for looking ineptly dressed (Anthony Powell); (3)
              absurd, silly, e.g. Here l was, awkward and tongue-tied, and all
              the time in danger of saying something inept or even rude
              (Siegfried Sassoon).

    inchoate  means 'just begun, underdeveloped', e.g. Trying to give his work
              a finished look--and all the time it's pathetically
              obvious...that the stuff's fatally inchoate (John Wain).
               It does not mean chaotic or incoherent.

    include:  see comprise (1)

    industrial action
              is an imprecise, often inappropriate, and sometimes socially
              divisive expression. If possible, use strike, work-to-rule,
              overtime ban, etc., as appropriate.

    infer:    see imply

    inflammable:
              see flammable.

    inflict, afflict.
              One inflicts something on someone or afflicts someone with
              something; something is inflicted on one, or one is afflicted
              with something.
               Do not use inflict with where afflict with is meant, e.g. in
              The miners are still out, and industry is inflicted (correctly,
              afflicted) with a kind of creeping paralysis.

    ingenious,
              clever at inventing, etc.; noun ingenuity; ingenuous open,
              frank, innocent; noun ingenuousness.

    insignia  is a plural noun, e.g Fourteen different airline insignia (David
              Lodge); its singular, rarely encountered, is insigne.

    insinuendo,
              a blend of insinuation and innuendo, at best only jocular.

    intense,  existing, having some quality, in a high degree, e.g. The
              intense evening sunshine (Iris Murdoch); intensive employing
              much effort, concentrated, e.g. Intensive care; The intensive
              geological surveys of the Sahara (Margaret Drabble).

    interface (noun) (1) A surface forming a common boundary between two
              regions, e.g. The concepts of surface tension apply to the
              interfaces between solid and solid, solid and liquid (etc.).
              (2) A piece of equipment in which interaction occurs between two
              systems, processes, etc., e.g. Modular interfaces can easily be
              designed to adapt the general-purpose computer to the equipment.
              (3) A point or area of interaction between two systems,
              organizations, or disciplines, e.g. The interface between
              physics and music is of direct relevance to...the psychological
              effects of hearing (Nature).
               Sense (3) is widely regarded as unacceptable, since it is
              often debased into a high-sounding synonym for boundary,
              meeting-point, interaction, liaison, link, etc., e.g. The need
              for the interface of lecturer and student will diminish.

    interface (verb), to connect (equipment) with (equipment) by means of an
              interface; (of equipment) to be connected by an interface; e.g.
              A multiplexed analog-to-digital converter interfaced to a PDP
              11-40 computer (Lancet).
               Interface should not be used as a synonym for interact (with),
              as, e.g., in The ideal candidate will have the ability to
              interface effectively with the heads of staff of various
              departments.

    internment,
              confinement (from verb intern).
               Do not confuse with interment, burial (from verb inter).

    into:     it is common informally, but incorrect in formal prose, to use
              in where into is required, especially after verbs of motion,
              e.g.  Practically knocked me over in his eagerness to get in the
              house (David Lodge).

    invite    (noun = 'invitation'), although over three centuries old,
              remains informal (and somewhat non-standard) only.

    ironic, ironical, ironically.
              The noun irony can mean (1) a way of speaking in which the
              intended meaning (for those with insight) is the opposite to, or
              very different from, that expressed by the words used (and
              apprehended by the victim of the irony); or (2) a condition of
              affairs or events that is the opposite of what might be
              expected, especially when the outcome of an action appears as if
              it is in mockery of the agent's intention.  The adjectives
              ironic, ironical, and the adverb ironically are commonly used in
              sense (1) of irony, e.g.  Ironical silent apology for the
              absence of naked women and tanks of gin from the amenities
              (Kingsley Amis). They are also frequently found in sense (2),
              e.g. The outcome was ironic. The expenditure of British treasure
              served to rearm the United States rather than to strengthen
              Great Britain (A. J. P.  Taylor); The fact that after all she
              had been faithful to me was ironic (Graham Greene).
               Some people object to this use, especially when ironically is
              used to introduce a trivial oddity, e.g.  It was ironic that he
              thought himself locked out when the key was in his pocket all
              the time.

    kind of, sort of
              (1) A kind of, sort of should not be followed by a before the
              noun, e.g. a kind of shock, not a kind of a shock. (2) Kind of,
              sort of, etc., followed by a plural noun, are often treated as
              plural and qualified by plural words like these, those, or
              followed by a plural verb, e.g. They would be on those sort of
              terms (Anthony Powell). This is widely regarded as incorrect
              except in informal use:  substitute that (etc.) kind (or sort)
              of or of that kind (or sort), e.g. this kind of car is unpopular
              or cars of this kind are unpopular.  (3) Kind of, sort of used
              adverbially, e.g. I kind of expected it, are informal only.

    kudos     is a mass noun like glory or fame, e.g. He's made a lot of kudos
              out of the strike (Evelyn Waugh).
               It is not a plural noun and there is no singular kudo.

    latter:   see former.

    laudable, praiseworthy, e.g. The Opposition's abstention from criticism of
              the Government in this crisis was laudable; laudatory,
              expressing praise, e.g. One politician's remarks about another
              are not always laudatory.

    lay       (verb), past laid, = 'put down, arrange', etc. is only
              transitive, e.g. Lay her on the bed; They laid her on the bed;
              (reflexive, somewhat archaic) I will both lay me down in peace,
              and sleep (Authorized Version).
               To use lay intransitively, to mean 'lie', e.g. She wants to
              lay down; She was laying on the bed is non-standard, even though
              fairly common in spoken English. Cf. lie.

    leading question,
              in Law, is a question so worded that it prompts a person to give
              the desired answer, e.g. The solicitor...at once asked me some
              leading questions...I had to try to be both forthcoming and
              discreet (C. P. Snow).
               It does not mean a 'principal' (or 'loaded' or 'searching')
              question.

    learn     with a person as the object, = 'teach' is non-standard, or
              occasionally jocular as in I'll learn you.

    less      (adjective) is the comparative of (a) little, and, like the
              latter, is used with mass nouns, e.g. I owe him little duty and
              less love (Shakespeare); fewer is the comparative of (a) few,
              and both are used with plural countable nouns, e.g. Few people
              have their houses broken into; and fewer still have them burnt
              (G. B. Shaw).
               Less quite often used informally as the comparative of few,
              probably on the analogy of more, which is the comparative both
              of much (with mass nouns) and many (with plural countable
              nouns), e.g. I wish that they would send less delicacies and
              frills and some more plain and substantial things (Susan Hill).
              This is regarded as incorrect in formal English.
               Less should not be used as the comparative of small (or some
              similar adjective such as low), e.g.  a lower price not a less
              price.

    lesser,   not so great as the other or the rest, e.g. He opened The Times
              with the rich crackle that drowns all lesser sounds (John
              Galsworthy).
               Lesser should not be used when the meaning is 'not so big' or
              'not so large': its opposition to greater is essential. It
              cannot replace smaller in A smaller prize will probably be
              offered.

    lest      is very formal (in ordinary English, so that...not or in case is
              used); it is followed by should or (in exalted style) the
              subjunctive, e.g. Lest the eye wander aimlessly, a Doric temple
              stood by the water's edge (Evelyn Waugh); Lest some too sudden
              gesture or burst of emotion should turn the petals brown
              (Patrick White).

    let,      to allow (followed by the bare infinitive) is rarely used in the
              passive: the effect is usually unidiomatic, e.g. Halfdan's two
              sons... are let owe their lives to a trick (Gwyn Jones).
              Allowed to is usual.

    liable    (1) can be followed by to + a noun or noun phrase in the sense
              'subject to, likely to suffer from', or by an infinitive; (2)
              carries the implication that the action or experience expressed
              by the infinitive is undesirable, e.g.  Receiving in the bedroom
              is liable to get a woman talked about (Tom Stoppard); (3) can
              indicate either the mere possibility, or the habituality, of
              what is expressed by the verb, e.g.  The cruellest question
              which a novelist is liable to be asked (Frederic Raphael); The
              kind of point that one is always liable to miss (George Orwell).
               The sense 'likely to' is Amer., e.g. Boston is liable to be
              the ultimate place for holding the convention. Contrast apt.

    lie       (verb) past lay, lain, = 'recline' 'be situated', is only
              intransitive, e.g. Lie down on the bed; The ship lay at anchor
              until yesterday; Her left arm, on which she had lain all night,
              was numb.
               To use lie transitively, to mean 'lay', e.g. Lie her on the
              bed is non-standard. The past lay and participle lain are quite
              often wrongly used for laid out of over-correctness, e.g. He had
              lain this peer's honour in the dust. Cf. lay.

    ligature: see digraph.

    like,     indicating resemblance between two things: (1) It is normally
              used as an adjective followed by a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun
              (in the objective case), e.g. A man with human frailties like
              our own (NEB); He loathes people like you and me (not.. and I).
              It can be used to mean 'such as' (introducing a particular
              example of a class about which something is said), e.g. With a
              strongly patterned dress like that you shouldn't really wear any
              jewellery (Iris Murdoch).
               In formal contexts some people prefer such as to be used if
              more than one example is mentioned, e.g. British composers such
              as Elgar, Vaughan Williams, and Britten.
              (2) It is often used as a conjunction with a dependent clause,
              e.g. Everything went wrong...like it does in dreams (Iris
              Murdoch); Not with a starched apron like the others had (Jean
              Rhys), or with an adverbial phrase, e.g. With glossy hair,
              black, and a nose like on someone historical (Patrick White); It
              was as if I saw myself. Like in a looking-glass (Jean Rhys).
               Although this is not uncommon in formal writing, it is often
              'condemned as vulgar or slovenly' (OED), and is best avoided,
              except informally. Use as, e.g. Are you going to kill me as you
              killed the Egyptian? (NEB), or recast the sentence, e.g. A
              costume like those that the others wore.
              (3) It is often informally used to mean 'as if', e.g. The light
              at either end of the tunnel was like you were looking through a
              sheet of yellow cellophane (Patrick White); You wake like
              someone hit you on the head (T. S. Eliot).
               This use is very informal.

    likely    (adverb), in the sense 'probably', must be preceded by more,
              most, or very, e.g. Its inhabitants...very likely do make that
              claim for it (George Orwell).
               The use without the qualifying adverb is Amer., e.g. They'll
              likely turn ugly (Eugene O'Neill).

    linguist  means 'one whose subject is linguistics' as well as 'one skilled
              in the use of languages'; there is no other suitable term
              (linguistician is disfavoured).

    literally.
              In very informal speech, literally is used as an intensifying
              adverb without meaning apart from its emotive force.
               This use should be avoided in writing or formal speech, since
              it almost invariably involves absurdity, e.g. The dwarfs
              mentioned here are literally within a stone's throw of the Milky
              Way (New Scientist). The appropriate use is seen in She emerged,
              fully armed, from the head of Zeus who was suffering from a
              literally splitting headache (Frederic Raphael).

    loan      (verb) has some justification where a businesslike loan is in
              question, e.g. The gas industry is using a major part of its
              profits to benefit the PSBR by loaning money to Government
              (Observer). Otherwise it is a needless variant for lend.

    locate    can mean 'discover the place where someone or somebody is', e.g.
              She had located and could usefully excavate her Saharan highland
              emporium (Margaret Drabble); it should not be used to mean
              merely 'find'.

    lot.      A lot of, though somewhat informal, is acceptable in serious
              writing; lots of is not.

    luncheon  is an especially formal variant of lunch; the latter should
              normally be used, except in fixed expressions like luncheon
              voucher.

    luxuriant,
              growing profusely, prolific, profuse, exuberant, e.g.  His hair
              does not seem to have been luxuriant even in its best days (G.
              B. Shaw).
               Do not confuse with luxurious (the adjective relating to
              luxury), e.g. The food, which had always been good, was now
              luxurious (C. P. Snow).

    majority  can mean 'the greater number of a countable set', and is then
              followed by the plural, e.g.  The majority of the plays produced
              were failures (G. B. Shaw).
               Great (or huge, vast, etc.) can precede majority in this
              sense, e.g.  The first thing you gather from the vast majority
              of the speakers (C. S.  Lewis); but not greater, greatest (since
              'more' is already contained in the word).
               Majority is not used to mean 'the greater part of an
              uncountable mass', e.g. I was doing most (or the greater part)
              of the cooking (not the majority of the cooking).

    masterful,
              domineering, e.g. People might say she was tyrannical,
              domineering, masterful (Virginia Woolf).
               Do not confuse with masterly, very skilful, e.g. A masterly
              compound of friendly argumentation and menace (Iris Murdoch).

    maximize, to make as great as possible.
               It should not be used for 'to make as good, easy, (etc). as
              possible' or 'to make the most of' as in To maximize customer
              service; To maximize this situation.

    means     (1) Money resources: a plural noun, e.g.  You might find out
              from Larry...what his means are (G. B. Shaw).
              (2) That by which a result is brought about.  It may be used
              either as a singular noun or as a plural one, without any change
              in form, e.g. (singular) The press was, at this time, the only
              means of..  influencing opinion at home (A. J. P. Taylor);
              (plural) All the time-honoured means of meeting the opposite sex
              (Frederic Raphael).
               Beware of mixing singular and plural, as in The right to
              resist by every (singular) means that are (plural) consonant
              with the law of God.

    media,    agency, means (of communication etc.), is a plural noun, e.g.
              The communication media inflate language because they dare not
              be honest (Anthony Burgess). Its singular is medium (rare except
              in mass medium).
               Media cannot be treated as a singular noun or form a plural
              medias. Medium (in Spiritualism) forms its plural in -s.

    militate: see mitigate.

    milliard: see billion.

    minimize, to reduce to, or estimate at, the smallest possible amount or
              degree, e.g. Each side was inclined to minimize its own losses
              in battle.
               It does not mean lessen and therefore cannot be qualified by
              adverbs like greatly.

    minority. Large, vast, etc. minority can mean either 'a considerable
              number who are yet less than  half', or 'a number who are very
              much the minority': it is best to avoid the ambiguity.

    mitigate, appease, alleviate moderate (usually transitive), e.g.  Its heat
              mitigated by the strong sea-wind (Anthony Burgess).
               Do not confuse with militate (intransitive) against, to serve
              as a strong influence against, e.g. The very fact that Leamas
              was a professional could militate against his interests (John le
              Carr): it is only the idea of countering that they have in
              common.

    momentum, impetus.
               Do not confuse with moment 'importance', e.g. He has marked
              his entrance with an error of some moment (not momentum).

    more than one
              is followed by a singular verb and is referred back to by
              singular pronouns, e.g. More than one popular dancing man
              inquired anxiously at his bank (Evelyn Waugh).

    motivate, to cause (a person) to act in a particular way.
               It does not mean 'supply a motive, justify', e.g. (wrongly) in
              The publisher motivates the slim size of these volumes by
              claiming it makes them more likely to be read.

    mutual    (1) Felt, done, etc., by each to(wards) the other, e.g. The
              mutual affection of father and son was rather touching (W.
              Somerset Maugham).
              (2) Standing in a (specified) relation to each other, e.g. Kings
              and subjects, mutual foes (Shelley). This sense is now rare.
              (3) Common to two (or more) parties, e.g. a mutual friend or
              acquaintance.
               Sense (3) is acceptable in a small number of collocations,
              such as the two indicated, in which common might be ambiguous;
              cf. They had already formed a small island of mutual Englishness
              (Muriel Spark):  common Englishness might imply vulgarity.
              Otherwise common is preferable, e.g. in By common (rather than
              mutual) consent the Chinese meal had been abandoned.

    nature.    Avoid using adjective + nature as a periphrasis for an
              abstract noun, e.g. write The dangerousness of the spot, not The
              dangerous nature of the spot.

    need      (this needs changing, etc.): see want.

    neighbourhood.
              In the neighbourhood of is an unnecessarily cumbersome
              periphrasis for round about.

    neither   (adverb).  It is non-standard to use it instead of either to
              strengthen a preceding negative, e.g. There were no books either
              (not neither).

    non-flammable:
              see flammable.

    normalcy  is chiefly Amer.
               Prefer normality.

    not only: see only (4).

    no way    (1) (Initially, followed inversion of verb and subject) =  'not
              at all, by no means', e.g. No way will you stop prices or
              unemployment going up again (James Callaghan).  Informal only.
              (2) (Emphatic) = 'certainly not', e.g. 'Did you go up in the
              elevator?' 'No way.'  Chiefly Amer.; informal only.

    number.   A number (of) is constructed with the plural, the number (of)
              the singular, e.g. Many of you are feeble and sick, and a number
              have died (NEB); The number of men who make a definite
              contribution to anything whatsoever is small (Virginia Woolf).

    obligate  (verb) is in Britain only used in Law.
               There is no gain in using it (as often in Amer. usage) for
              oblige.

    oblivious,
              in the sense 'unaware of, unconscious of', may be followed by of
              or to, e.g. 'When the summer comes,' said Lord Marchmain,
              oblivious of the deep corn and swelling fruit.. outside his
              windows (Evelyn Waugh); Rose seemed oblivious to individuals
              (Angus Wilson).
               This sense, which developed from the older sense 'forgetful',
              is sometimes censured, but is now fully established in the
              language.

    of        used for have: see of, in topic 1.51 and have in topic 2.31.

    off of    used for the preposition off e.g.  Picked him off of the floor,
              is non-standard.

    one       (pronoun) (1) 'any person, the speaker or writer as representing
              people in general' has one, one's, and oneself as objective,
              possessive, and reflexive forms.
               These forms should be used to point back to a previous use of
              one, e.g. One always did, in foreign parts, become friendly with
              one's fellow-countrymen more quickly than one did at home
              (Muriel Spark).  One should not be mixed with he (him, his,
              etc.) (acceptable Amer.  usage) or we, you, etc.
              (2) = single thing or person, following any and every; the
              resulting phrase is written as two words and is distinct from
              anyone, everyone ( = anybody, everybody), e.g.  Any one (of
              these) will do; Perhaps every one of my conclusions would be
              negatived by other observers (George Orwell).

    ongoing   has a valid use as adjective meaning 'that goes on', i.e. 'that
              is happening and will continue' (just as oncoming means 'that
              comes on'), e.g. The refugee problem in our time is an ongoing
              problem (Robert Kee).
               The vague or tautologous use of ongoing should be avoided, as
              in the clich ongoing situation, or in We have an ongoing
              military relationship which we are continuing (Guardian).

    only      (1) In spoken English, it usual to place only between subject
              and verb, e.g. He only saw Bill yesterday: intonation is used to
              show whether only limits he, saw, Bill, or yesterday.
              (2) It is an established idiom that, in a sentence containing
              only + verb + another item, in the absence of special
              intonation, only is understood as limiting, not the subject or
              verb, but the other item.  I only want some water is the natural
              way of saying I want only some water. If there is more than one
              item following the verb, only often limits the item nearest the
              end of the sentence, e.g. A type of mind that can only accept
              ideas if they are put in the language he would use himself
              (Doris Lessing) ( = only if... ); but not always, e.g. The
              captain was a thin unapproachable man...who only appeared once
              at table (Graham Greene) ( = only once). This idiom is tacitly
              recognized by all good writers, e.g.  They only met on the most
              formal occasions (C. P. Snow); The contractors were only waiting
              for the final signature to start their work of destruction
              (Evelyn Waugh); The Nonconformist sects only influenced
              minorities (George Orwell).
              (3) Despite the idiom described under (2), there are often
              sentences in which confusion can arise, e.g. Patrick only talked
              as much as he did, which was not as much as all that, to keep
              the ball in the air (Kingsley Amis), where at first sight only
              might appear to limit he (referring to some other person) but
              really limits to keep...air. If confusion or ambiguity is likely
              to arise, only should be placed before the item which it limits,
              e.g. They sought to convert others only by the fervour of their
              sentiments and the earnestness of their example (Frederic
              Raphael); The coalminer is second in importance only to the man
              who ploughs the soil (George Orwell).
              (4) Not only should always be placed next to the item which it
              qualifies, and not in the position before the verb. This is a
              fairly common slip, e.g. Katherine's marriage not only kept her
              away, but at least two of Mr. March's cousins (C. P. Snow); kept
              not only her would be better. If placing it before the verb is
              inevitable, the verb should be repeated after but (also), e.g.
              It not only brings the coal out but brings the roof down as well
              (George Orwell).

    orient, orientate.
              In meaning the two words are virtually synonymous.  In general,
              as opposed to technical, use, orientate seems to be predominant,
              but either is acceptable.

    other than
              can be used where other is an adjective or pronoun, e.g. He was
              no other than the rightful lord; The acts of any person other
              than myself.
               Other cannot be treated as an adverb: otherwise than should be
              used instead, e.g. in It is impossible to refer to them other
              than very cursorily.

    out       used as a preposition instead of out of, e.g. You should of
              [sic] pushed him out the nest long ago (character in work by
              Muriel Spark), is non-standard.

    outside of
              (1) = apart from (a sense outside cannot have) is informal only,
              e.g. The need of some big belief outside of art (Roger Fry, in a
              letter).
              (2) = beyond the limits of, e.g.  The most important such
              facility outside of Japan (Gramophone).
               In sense (2) outside alone is preferable: the of is redundant.

    outstanding.
               Do not use in the sense 'remaining undetermined, unpaid, etc.'
              in contexts where ambiguity with the sense 'eminent, striking'
              can arise, e.g. The other outstanding result (in sport).

    overly,   excessively, too, is still regarded as an unassimilated
              Americanism, e.g. Those overly rationalistic readers (TLS).
               Use excessively, too, or over- instead; for not overly, not
              very or none too make satisfactory replacements.

    overseas  (adjective and adverb) is now more usual than oversea.

    overview  is an Americanism that has not found acceptance in Britain:
              survey, review, or outline are adequate substitutes.

    owing to, unlike due to, has for long been established as a compound
              preposition, e.g. My rooms became uninhabitable, owing to a
              burst gas-pipe (C. P. Snow).
               Owing to the fact that should be avoided: use a conjunction
              like because.

    pace      means 'despite (someone)'s opinion', e.g. Our civilization, pace
              Chesterton, is founded on coal (George Orwell).
               It does not mean 'according to (someone)' or 'notwithstanding
              (something)'.

    parameter.
              (1) (In technical use especially in Mathematics and Computing)
              (roughly) a quantity constant in the case considered, but
              varying between different cases.
              (2) (In extended use) a defining characteristic, especially one
              that can be measured, e.g. The three major parameters of
              colour--brightness, hue, and saturation.
              (3) (Loosely) a limit or boundary, e.g.  The considerable
              element of indeterminacy which exists within the parameters of
              the parole system (The Times); an aspect or feature, e.g. The
              main parameters of the problem.
               Use (3) is a popular dilution of the word's meaning, probably
              influenced (at least in the first quotation) by perimeter; it
              should be avoided.

    parricide refers to the killing of one's father, one's close relative, or
              a person regarded as sacred, or to treason; patricide only to
              the killing of one's father.

    part      (on the part of): see behalf.

    partially, partly.
              Apart from the (rare) use of partially to mean 'in a partial or
              biased way', these two words are largely interchangeable.  Note,
              however, that partly... partly is more usual than
              partially...partially,  e.g.  Partly in verse and partly in
              prose.

    peer,     as in to have no peer, means 'equal', not 'superior'.

    pence     is sometimes informally used as a singular, e.g. How Fine Fare,
              on lard, is one pence up on Sainsbury's (Malcolm Bradbury).
               This use is very informal. Normally penny should be used in
              the singular.

    perquisite
              (informal abbreviation perk) a casual profit, incidental benefit
              attaching to an employment, thing to which a person has sole
              right, e.g. Free travel by train was a perquisite of railway
              managerial staff.
               Do not confuse with prerequisite 'something required as a
              previous condition (for, of, or to something)', e.g. Her mere
              comforting presence beside me which was already a prerequisite
              to peaceful sleep (Lynne Reid Banks).

    persistency
              is limited in sense to 'the action of persisting in one's
              course', e.g. They made repeated requests for compensation, but
              an official apology was the only reward for their persistency;
              persistence is sometimes used in that sense, but more often for
              'continued existence', e.g. One of the more surprising things
              about the life-ways of primitive societies is their persistence
              (Sean O'Faolain).

    perspicuous,
              easily understood, clearly expressed; expressing things clearly;
              similarly perspicuity; e.g.  There is nothing more desirable in
              composition than perspicuity (Southey).
               Do not confuse with perspicacious, having or showing insight,
              and perspicacity, e.g. Her perspicacity at having guessed his
              passion (Vita Sackville-West).

    petit bourgeois, petty bourgeois.
              The meaning (and with many people, the pronunciation) of these
              is the same. If the former is used, the correct French
              inflections should be added: petits bourgeois (plural),
              petite(s) bourgeoise(s) (feminine (plural)); also petite
              bourgeoisie.  With petty bourgeois it should be remembered that
              the sense of the original French petit is not English petty,
              although that may be one of its main connotations.

    phenomena is the plural of phenomenon.
               It cannot be used as a singular and cannot form a plural
              phenomenas.

    picaresque
              (of a style of fiction) dealing with the adventures of rogues.
               It does not mean 'transitory' or 'roaming'.

    pivotal,  being that on which anything pivots or turns, e.g.  The pardon
              of Richard Nixon was pivotal to those who made up their minds at
              the last minute.
               Do not use it merely to mean vital.

    plaid,    shawl-like garment; tartan, woollen cloth with distinctive
              pattern; the pattern itself.

     plus    (conjunction) = 'and in addition', is an Amer. colloquialism of
              little acceptability, e.g.  --have big names at big savings.
              Plus you get one year manufacturer's guarantee (Advertisement).

    polity,   a form of civil government, e.g. A republican polity; a state.
               It does not mean policy or politics.

    portentous
              can mean: (1) Like a portent, ominous, e.g. Fiery-eyed with a
              sense of portentous utterance (Muriel Spark). (2) Prodigious,
              e.g.  Every movement of his portentous frame (James Joyce). (3)
              Solemn, ponderous, and somewhat pompous, e.g. Our last
              conversation must have sounded to you rather portentous (Iris
              Murdoch); A portentous commentary on Holy Scripture (Lord
              Hailsham).
               Sense (3) is sometimes criticized, but is an established,
              slightly jocular use.
               The form portentious (due to the influence of pretentious) is
              erroneous.

    post, pre.
              Their use as full words (not prefixes) to mean 'after' and
              'before' is unnecessary and disagreeable, e.g. in Post the
              Geneva meeting of Opec (Daily Telegraph); Pre my being in office
              (Henry Kissinger).

    practicable, practical.
              When applied to things, practicable means 'able to be done',
              e.g. (with the negative impracticable), Schemes which look very
              fine on paper, but which, as we well know, are impracticable (C.
              S. Lewis); practical 'concerned with practice, suitable for use,
              suited to the conditions', e.g. Having considered the problem,
              he came up with several practical suggestions; It is essential
              that the plan should cover all the practical details.

    pre:      see post, pre.

    precipitous,
              like a precipice, e.g. Our rooms were...reached by a precipitous
              marble staircase (Evelyn Waugh).
               Do not confuse with precipitate, hasty, rash, e.g. They were
              all a little out of breath from precipitate arrival (Patrick
              White).

    predicate (verb) (1) (Followed of) to assert as a property of, e.g.  That
              easy Bohemianism--conventionally predicated of the 'artistic'
              temperament (J. I. M. Stewart).  (2) (Followed by on) to found
              or base (something) on, e.g. A new conception of
              reality...predicated on dissatisfaction with formalist
              literature (TLS)
               Sense (2) tends to sound pretentious. Use found, or base, on.

    pre-empt  (1) To obtain beforehand, secure for oneself in advance, e.g.
              Sound allows the mind an inventive role systematically
              pre-empted by the cinema (Frederic Raphael). (2) To preclude,
              forestall, e.g. The Nazi regime by its own grotesque vileness
              pre-empted fictional effort (Listener).
               Sense (2) is better expressed by a verb such as preclude or
              forestall.
               Pre-empt is not a synonym for prevent.

    prefer.   The rejected alternative introduced by to, e.g.  Men preferred
              darkness to light (NEB).  But when the rejected alternative is
              an infinitive, it is preceded by rather than (not than alone),
              e.g. I'd prefer to be stung to death rather than to wake
              up...with half of me shot away (John Osborne).

    preferable to
              means 'more desirable than' and is therefore intensified by far,
              greatly, or much, not more, e.g. After a hundred and eighty
              (skips) an unclear head seemed much preferable to more skips
              (Kingsley Amis).

    preference.
              The alternatives are introduced by for and over, e.g. The
              preference for a single word over a phrase or clause (Anthony
              Burgess); but in preference is followed by to, e.g. Both were
              sensitive to artistic impressions musical in preference to
              plastic or pictorial (James Joyce).

    prejudice (1) = bias, is followed by against or in favour of; (2) =
              detriment, is followed by to; (3) = injury, is followed by of
              (in the phrase to the prejudice of).

    prepared: to be prepared to, to be willing to, has been criticized as
              officialese by some authorities, but is now established usage,
              e.g. One should kill oneself, which, of course, I was not
              prepared to do (Cyril Connolly).

    prerequisite
              see perquisite.

    prescribe,
              to lay down as a rule be followed; proscribe, to forbid by law.

    presently (1) After a short time, e.g. Presently we left the table and sat
              in the garden-room (Evelyn Waugh). (2) At present, currently,
              e.g. The praise presently being heaped upon him  (The
              Economist).
               Sense (2) (for long current in American English) is regarded
              as incorrect by some people but is widely used and often sounds
              more natural than at present.

    prestigious
              (1) Characterized by juggling or magic, delusive, deceptive,
              e.g. The prestigious balancing act which he was constantly
              obliged to perform (TLS):  now rare. (2) Having or showing
              prestige, e.g. A career in pure science is still more socially
              prestigious than one in engineering (The Times): a fully
              acceptable sense.

    prevaricate,
              to speak or act evasively or misleadingly, e.g. I never have
              told a lie...On many occasions I have resorted to prevarication;
              but on great occasions I have always told the truth (G. B.
              Shaw); procrastinate, to postpone action, e.g.
              Hamlet...pronounces himself a procrastinator, an undecided man,
              even a coward (C. S. Lewis).

    prevent   is followed by the objective case and from + the gerund, or by
              the possessive case + the gerund, e.g. prevent me from going or
              prevent my going.
               Prevent me going is informal only.

     pre-war as an adverb, in, e.g., Some time pre-war there was a large
              contract out for tender (Daily Telegraph): prefer before the
              war.

    pristine  (1) Ancient, original, e.Stone which faithfully reproduced its
              pristine alternations of milk and cream (J. I. M. Stewart). (2)
              Having its original, unspoilt condition, e.g. Pristine snow
              reflects about 90 per cent of incident sunlight (Fred Hoyle).
               Pristine does not mean 'spotless', 'pure', or 'fresh'.

    procrastinate:
              see prevaricate.

    prone     (followed by to) is used like, and means much the same as,
              liable, except that it usually qualifies a personal subject,
              e.g. My literary temperament rendering me especially prone to
              'all that kind of poisonous nonsense' (Cyril Connolly).

    proportion
              means 'a comparative part, share, or ratio'; it is not a mere
              synonym for part.

    proscribe:
              see prescribe.

    protagonist,
              the leading character in a story or incident.
               In Greek drama there was only one protagonist, but this is no
              reason to debar the use of the word in the plural, e.g.
              We...sometimes mistook a mere supernumerary in a fine dress for
              one of the protagonists (C. S. Lewis).
               Do not confuse with proponent:  the word contains the Greek
              prefix prot- 'first', not the prefix pro- 'in favour of', and
              does not mean 'champion, advocate'.

    protest   (verb, transitive) to affirm solemnly, e.g. He barely attempted
              to protest his innocence (George Orwell).
               The sense 'protest against', e.g.  in The residents have
              protested the sale, is Amer. only.

    proven.   It is not standard to use this as the ordinary past participle
              of prove in British English (it is standard Scots and Amer.); it
              is, however, common attributively in certain expressions, such
              as of proven ability.

    provenance,
              origin, place of origin, is used in Britain; the form
              provenience is its usual Amer. equivalent.

    prudent,  showing carefulness and foresight, e.g.  It seemed prudent to
              inform him of my plans rather than let him hear about them
              indirectly; prudential, involving or marked by prudence, e.g.
              The humble little outfit of prudential maxims which really
              underlay much of the talk about Shakespeare's characters (C. S.
              Lewis).

    pry,      to prise (open, etc.): chiefly Amer., but occasionally in
              British literary use, e.g. For her to pry his fingers open
              (David Garnett).  The normal sense is 'peer' or 'inquire'.

    quadrillion
              see billion.

    question  (1) No question that (sometimes but), no doubt that, e.g.  There
              can be no question that the burning of Joan of Arc must have
              been a most instructive and interesting experiment (G. B. Shaw);
              There is no question but Leslie was an unusually handsome boy
              (Anthony Powell).
              (2) No question of, no possibility of, e.g. There can be no
              question of tabulating successes and failures and trying to
              decide whether the successes are too numerous to be accounted
              for by chance (C. S. Lewis).  See also beg the question,leading
              question.

    quote     (noun = quotation) is informal only (except in Printing and
              Commerce).

     re      (in the matter of, referring to) is better avoided and should
              not be used for 'about, concerning'.

    reason.   The reason (why)..is..should be followed by that, not because,
              e.g. The reason why such a suggestion sounds hopeless...is that
              few people are able to imagine the radio being used for the
              dissemination of anything except tripe (George Orwell).

    recoup    (1) (transitive) to recompense (oneself or a person) for (a loss
              or expenditure), e.g. Dixon felt he could recoup himself a
              little for the expensiveness of the drinks (Kingsley Amis); also
              to recoup one's losses; (2) (intransitive) to make good one's
              loss, e.g. I had...acquired so many debts that if I didn't
              return to England to recoup, we might have to run for it (Chaim
              Bermant).
               This word is not synonymous with recuperate except partly in
              sense (2) above ('to make good one's loss').

    recuperate
              (1) (intransitive) to recover from exhaustion, ill-health,
              financial loss, etc., e.g. I've got a good mind...to put all my
              winnings on red and give him a chance to recuperate (Graham
              Greene); (2) (transitive) to recover (health, a loss, material).
              In sense (2) recover is preferable.

    redolent, smelling of something, e.g. Corley's breath redolent of rotten
              cornjuice (James Joyce); also used figuratively to mean
              'strongly suggestive or reminiscent of', e.g.  The missive most
              redolent of money and sex (Martin Amis).

    referendum.
               For the plural, referendums is preferable to referenda.

    refute,   to prove (a statement, opinion, accusation, etc.), to be false,
              e.g. The case against most of them must have been so easily
              refuted that they could hardly rank as suspects (Rebecca West);
              to prove (a person) to be in error, e.g. One of those German
              scholars whose function is to be refuted in a footnote (Frederic
              Raphael).
               Refute does not mean 'deny' or 'repudiate' (an allegation
              etc.).

    regalia   is a plural noun, meaning 'emblems of royalty or of an order'.
              It has no singular in ordinary English.

    region:   in the region of, unwieldy periphrasis for roundabout, is better
              avoided.

    register office
              is the official term for the institution informally often called
              the registry office.

    regretfully,
              in a regretful manner; regrettably, it is to be regretted
              (that).
               Regretfully should not be used where regrettably is intended:
              The investigators, who must regretfully remain anonymous (TLS),
              reads as a guess at the investigators' feelings instead of an
              expression of the writer's opinion, which was what was intended.
              The influence of hopefully (2) may be discernible here.

    renege    (intransitive), to fail to fulfil an agreement or undertaking,
              is usually constructed with on, e.g.  It...reneged on Britain's
              commitment to the East African Asians (The Times).

    resource  is often confused with recourse and resort. Resource means (1) a
              reserve upon which one can draw (often used in the plural); (2)
              an action or procedure to which one can turn in difficulty, an
              expedient; (3) mental capabilities for amusing oneself, etc.
              (often used in the plural, e.g. Left to his own resources); (4)
              ability to deal with a crisis, e.g. A man of infinite resource.
              Recourse means the action of turning to a possible source of
              help; frequently in the phrases have recourse to, without
              recourse to. Resort means (1) the action of turning to a
              possible source of help ( = recourse; but resorting is more
              usual than resort after without); frequently in the phrase in
              the last resort, as a last expedient, in the end; (2) a thing to
              which one can turn in difficulty.

    responsible for
              (1) Liable to be called to account for, e.g. I'm not responsible
              for what uncle Percy does (E. M. Forster).
              (2) Obliged to take care of or carry out, e.g. Both they and the
              singers, who were responsible for their respective duties (NEB).
              (3) Being the cause of, e.g. A war-criminal responsible for so
              many unidentified deaths (Graham Greene).
               Beware of using senses (1) or (2) in expressions in which
              sense (3) can be understood, with absurd results, e.g. Now, as
              Secretary for Trade, he is directly responsible for pollution
              (The Times).

    restive   (1) Unmanageable, rejecting control, obstinate, e.g. The
              I.L.P....had been increasingly restive during the second Labour
              government, and now, refusing to accept Labour-party discipline
              in the house of commons, voluntarily disaffiliated from the
              Labour party (A. J. P.  Taylor).
              (2) Restless, fidgety, e.g.  The audiences were not bad, though
              apt to be restive and noisy at the back (J. B. Priestley).
               Sense (2) is objected to by some authorities but is quite
              commonly used by good writers.

    revenge:  one revenges oneself or a wrong (on an offender); one is
              revenged (for a wrong): the noun is revenge, and the idea is
              usually of satisfaction of the offended party's resentment. Cf.
              avenge.

    reverend, deserving reverence; reverent, showing reverence. (The) Revd,
              plural Revds, is the abbreviation of Reverend as a clergy title
              (not Rev.).

    reversal  is the noun corresponding to the verb reverse; reversion is the
              noun corresponding to the verb revert.

    same.      It is non-standard to use the phrase same as as a kind of
              conjunction meaning 'in the same way as, just as', e.g. But I
              shouldn't be able to serve them personally, same as I do now (L.
              P. Hartley).
               The phrase same like, used for just like or in the same way
              as, is illiterate, e.g. I have rich friends, same like you (Iris
              Murdoch).

    sanction  (verb) to give approval to, to authorize, e.g. This council
              sanctioned the proclamation of a state of war with Germany from
              11 p.m. (A. J. P. Taylor).
               It does not mean 'impose sanctions on'.

    sc.       (short for Latin scilicet = scire licet one is permitted to
              know) introduces (1) a word to be supplied, e.g. He asserted
              that he had met him (sc. the defendant) on that evening, or (2)
              a word to be substituted for one already used, in order to
              render an expression intelligible, e.g. 'I wouldn't of (sc.
              have) done' was her answer.

    scabrous  (1) (In Botany and Zoology) having a rough surface. (2)
              Encrusted with dirt, grimy, e.g. The streaky green distempered
              walls and the scabrous wooden W.C. seat (John Braine). (3)
              Risqu, salacious, indecent, e.g. Silly and scabrous titters
              about Greek pederasty (C. S.  Lewis).
               Scabrous does not mean 'scathing, abusive, scurrilous'.

    scarify,  to loosen the surface of (soil, etc.); to make slight cuts in
              (skin, tissue) surgically.
               The verb scarify (pronounced scare-ify) 'scare, terrify', e.g.
              To be on the brink of a great happiness is a scarifying feeling
              (Noel Coward), is informal only.

    scenario  (1) An outline of the plof a play. (2) A film script giving
              details of scenes, stage-directions, etc. (3) An outline of an
              imagined (usually future) sequence of events, e.g. Several of
              the computer 'scenarios' include a catastrophic and sudden
              collapse of population (Observer).
               Sense (3) is valid when a detailed narrative of events that
              might happen under certain conditions is denoted. The word
              should not be used as a loose synonym for scene, situation,
              circumstance, etc.

    scilicet: see sc.

    Scottish  is now the usual adjective; Scotch is restricted to a fairly
              large number of fixed expressions, e.g. Scotch broth, egg,
              whisky; Scots is used mainly for the Scottish dialect of
              English, in the names of regiments, and in Scotsman, Scotswoman
              (Scotchman, -woman are old-fashioned ). To designate the
              inhabitants of Scotland, the plural noun Scots is normal.

    seasonable,
              suitable for the time of year, occurring at the right time or
              season, opportune; unseasonable occurring at the wrong time or
              season, e.g. You are apt to be pressed to drink a glass of
              vinegary port at an unseasonable hour (Somerset Maugham).
               Do not confuse with seasonal, occurring at or associated with
              a particular season, e.g. There is a certain seasonal tendency
              to think better of the Government...in spring (The Economist)

    senior, superior
              are followed by to. They contain the idea of 'more' (advanced in
              years, exalted in position, etc.) and so cannot be constructed
              with more...than, e.g.  There are several officers senior, or
              superior in rank, to him, not... more senior, or more superior
              in rank, than him.

    sensibility,
              ability to feel, sensitiveness, delicacy of feeling, e.g. The
              man's moving fingers...showed no sign of acute sensibility
              (Graham Greene).
               Sensibility is not the noun corresponding to sensible meaning
              'having good sense'; i.e. it does not mean 'possession of good
              sense'.

    sensual,  gratifying to the body; indulging oneself with physical
              pleasures, showing that one does this, e.g. His sensual eye took
              in her slim feminine figure (Angus Wilson); sensuous, affecting
              or appealing to the senses (without the pejorative implications
              of sensual), e.g. I got up and ran about the...meadow in my bare
              feet. I remember the sensuous pleasure of it (C. Day Lewis).

    serendipity,
              the making of pleasant discoveries by accident, or the knack or
              fact of doing this; the adjective (usually applied to a
              discovery, event, fact, etc.) is serendipitous.
               Serendipitous does not mean merely 'fortunate'.

    sic       (Latin for thus) is placed in brackets after a word that appears
              odd or erroneous to show that the word is quoted exactly as it
              stands in the original, e.g. Daisy Ashford's novel The Young
              Visiters (sic).

    sick      see ill.

     sit, stand.
              The use of the past participle sat, stood with the verb to be,
              meaning to be sitting, standing, is non-standard, e.g. No
              really, I'd be sat there falling asleep if I did come (Kingsley
              Amis).

    situation A useful noun for expressing the sense 'position of affairs,
              combination of circumstances' which may validly be preceded by a
              defining adjective, e.g. the financial, industrial, military,
              political, situation.
               The substitution of an attributive noun for an adjective
              before situation should be carefully considered. It should not
              be used when the resulting phrase will be tautologous (e.g. a
              crisis situation, people in work situations: crises and work are
              themselves situations). The placing of an attributive phrase
              before situation is nearly always ugly and should be avoided,
              e.g. The deep space situation, a balance-of-terror situation, a
              standing credit situation.
               The combination of ongoing with situation is a clich to be
              avoided.

    sled      is Amer. for sledge; sleigh is a sledge for passengers that is
              drawn by horses (or reindeer).

    so        used adverbially as a means of linking two clauses and meaning
              'therefore' may be preceded by and but need not be; e.g. Leopold
              Bloom is a modern Ulysses, so he has to encounter Sirens and a
              Cyclops (Anthony Burgess); I had received no word from Martha
              all day, so I was drawn back to the casino (Graham Greene).

    so-called (1) has long been used in the sense 'called by this term, but
              not entitled to it'; (2) is now often used quite neutrally,
              without implication of incorrectness, especially in Science.

    sort of   see kind of.

    specialty,
              except for its use in Law, is an equivalent of speciality
              restricted to North America.

    spectate, to be a spectator, is at best informal.
               Watch is usually an adequate substitute, e.g. in A spectating,
              as opposed to a reading, audience (Listener).

    strata    is the plural of stratum.
               It is incorrect to treat it as a singular noun, e.g. in The
              movement has...sunk to a wider and more anonymous strata.

    style.    (1) Adjective + -style used to qualify a noun, e.g. European-
              style clothing, contemporary-style dancing, is acceptable.
              (2) Adjective or noun + -style, forming an adverb, is somewhat
              informal, e.g. A revolution, British-style (A. J. P. Taylor).

    substantial,
              actually existing; real value; of solid material; having much
              property; in essentials; e.g. substantial damages, progress; a
              substantial house, yeoman; substantial agreement.
               It is not merely a synonym of large.

    substantive
              (adjective) is used mainly in technical senses; e.g.
              substantive rank, in the services, is permanent, not acting or
              temporary.

    substitute
              (verb) to put (someone or something) in place of another:
              constructed with for; e.g. Democracy substitutes election by the
              incompetent many for appointment by the corrupt few (G. B.
              Shaw).
               The sense 'replace (someone or something) by or with another'
              is incorrect, or at best highly informal, e.g. in Having
              substituted her hat with a steel safety helmet, she went on a
              tour of the site (better, Having replaced her hat...with or
              Having substituted a steel safety helmet for...)

    such as   see like.

    superior  see senior

    suppositious,
              hypothetical, conjectural; supposititious, fraudulently
              substituted (especially of a child displacing a real heir), e.g.
              Russia is the supposititious child of necessity in the household
              of theory (H. G. Wells).

    synchronize
              (transitive), to make to occur at the same time, e.g.  Everyday
              cordialities would be synchronized with gazes of rapt ardour
              (Martin Amis).
               It is not a synonym for combine or co-ordinate.

    than      see
              different,
              other than,
              prefer,
              senior.

    thankfully
              see hopefully.

    the       (article). When a name like The Times or The Hague is used
              attributively, The is dropped, e.g.  A Times correspondent, Last
              year's Hague conference. If the precedes the name in such a
              construction, it belongs to the succeeding noun, not to the
              name, and is therefore not given a capital initial (or italics),
              e.g. A report from the Times correspondent.

    the       (adverb) prefixed to a comparative means 'thereby' or 'by so
              much', e.g. What student is the better for mastering these
              futile distinctions? This combination can enter into the further
              construction seen in The more the merrier (i.e. 'by how much
              more, by that much merrier'). It cannot enter into a
              construction with than: the tendency to insert it before more
              and less (putting any the more, none the less for anymore, no
              less) should be resisted, e.g. in The intellectual release had
              been no less (not none the less) marked than the physical.

    then      may be used as an adjective preceding a noun as a neat
              alternative to at that time or similar phrase, e.g. Hearing that
              they were on personal terms with the then Prime Minister
              (Frederic Raphael).
               It should not be placed before the noun if it would sound
              equally well in its usual position, e.g.  Harold Macmillan was
              the then Prime Minister could equally well be was then the Prime
              Minister. The same applies to an adverbial use of then before
              attributive adjectives, e.g.  The then existing constitution:
              write The constitution then existing.

    there-    adverbs, e.g. therein, thereon, thereof, etc., belong mainly to
              very formal diction and should be avoided in ordinary writing
              (apart from certain idiomatic adverbs, e.g. thereabouts,
              thereby, thereupon); e.g. We did not question this reasoning,
              and there lay our mistake (Evelyn Waugh): a lesser writer might
              have written therein. But such adverbs can be employed for
              special effectiveness, e.g. This idea brought him rocketing back
              to earth. But he stood thereupon like a giant (Iris Murdoch).

    through,  up to and including, e.g. Friday through Tuesday, though useful,
              is Amer. only.

    too       followed by an adjective used attributively should be confined
              to poetry or special effects in prose, e.g. Metropolis, that
              too-great city (W. H. Auden); A small too-pretty house (Graham
              Greene).
               In normal prose it is a clumsy construction, e.g.  The crash
              came during a too-tight loop.

    tooth-comb
              and fine tooth-comb, arising from a misapprehension of
              fine-tooth comb, are now established expressions whose
              illogicality it is pedantic to object to.

    tortuous, torturous.
              Do not confuse:  tortuous means (1) twisting, e.g.  Through
              tortuous lanes where the overhanging boughs whipped the
              windscreen (Evelyn Waugh); (2) devious, e.g. Control had his
              reasons; they were usually so bloody tortuous it took you a week
              to work them out (John le Carr). Torturous means 'involving
              torture, excruciating', e.g. Torturously original inlay-work
              (TLS).

    transcendent,
              surpassing (e.g. Of transcendent importance), (of God) above and
              distinct from the universe, e.g. Such transcendent power does
              not come from us, but is God's alone (NEB); transcendental,
              visionary, idealistic, beyond experience, etc., e.g. Most of
              those who have been near death have also described some kind of
              mystical or transcendental experience (British Medical Journal).
              (Other more technical senses of each word are ignored here.)

    transpire (figuratively): (1) To leak out, come to be known, e.g.  What
              had transpired concerning that father was not so reassuring
              (John Galsworthy). (2) To come about, take place, e.g. What
              transpired between them is unknown (David Cecil).
               Sense (2), probably arising from the misunderstanding of
              sentences like 'What had transpired during his absence he did
              not know', is chiefly informal. It is regarded by many people as
              unacceptable, especially if the idea of something emerging from
              ignorance is absent: it should therefore not be used in
              sentences like A storm transpired.

    trillion  see billion.

    triumphal,
              of or celebrating a triumph, e.g. A triumphal arch; triumphant,
              conquering, exultant.

    try       (verb) in writing normally followed by the to- infinitive: try
              and + bare infinitive is informal.

    turbid    (1) thick, dense; (2) confused, disordered, e.g. In an access of
              despair had sought death in the turbid Seine (W. Somerset
              Maugham).
              Turgid (1) swollen; (2) (of language) inflated, grandiloquent,
              e.g. Some of them are turgid, swollen with that kind of
              intellectual bombast which never rises to gusto (G. H. Vallins).

    underlay  (verb) (past underlaid) to lay something under (a thing), e.g.
              Underlaid the tiles with felt: a somewhat rare verb; underlie
              (past tense underlay, past participle underlain) to lie under;
              to be the basis of; to exist beneath the surface of, e.g. The
              arrogance that underlay their cool good manners (Doris Lessing).

    unequivocal,
              not ambiguous, unmistakable; similarly unequivocally adverb,
              e.g. Made her intentions unequivocally clear.
               The forms unequivocable, -ably, sometimes seen, are erroneous.

    unexceptionable, -al
              see exceptionable.

    unique    (1) Being the only one of its kind, e.g. The fighting quality
              that gives war its unique power over the imagination (G. B.
              Shaw): in this sense unique cannot be qualified by adverbs like
              absolutely, most, quite, so, thoroughly, etc. (2) Unusual,
              remarkable, singular, e.g. A passionate human insight so unique
              in her experience that she felt it to be unique in human
              experience (Muriel Spark).
               Sense (2) is regarded by many people as incorrect. Substitute
              one of the synonyms given above, or whatever other adjective is
              appropriate.

    unlike    (adverb) may govern a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun, just as
              like may, e.g. A sarcasm unlike ordinary sarcasm (V. S.
              Pritchett).  It may not govern a clause with or without ellipsis
              of the verb, e.g.  He was unlike he had ever been; Unlike in
              countries of lesser economic importance.

     various cannot be used as a pronoun followed by of (as, for example,
              several can), as (wrongly) in The two ministers...concerned have
              been paying private visits to various of the Commonwealth
              representatives.

    venal,    able to be bribed, influenced by bribery; venial, pardonable.

    vengeance see avenge.

    verbal    (1) of or in words; (2) of a verb; (3) spoken rather than
              written.
               Some people reject sense (3) as illogical and prefer oral.
              However, verbal is the usual term in a number of idioms, such as
              verbal communication, contract, evidence.

    verge     (verb) in verge on, upon, to border on, e.g. He told two or
              three stories verging on the improper (John Galsworthy), is in
              origin a different word from verge in verge to, towards to
              incline towards, approach, e.g. The London docks, where
              industrial disputes always verged towards violence (A. J. P.
              Taylor). Both are acceptable.

    vermin    is usually treated as plural, e.g. A lot of parasites, vermin
              who feed on God's love and charity (Joyce Cary).

    via       (1) By way of (a place), e.g. To London via Reading. (2) By
              means of, through the agency of, e.g. Other things can...be
              taught...via the air, via television, via teaching machines, and
              so on (E. F.  Schumacher); I sent it via my secretary.
               Sense (2) is sometimes criticized, but is certainly acceptable
              in informal use.

    waive     to refrain from using or insisting on, to forgo or dispense
              with, e.g. The satisfaction...of waiving the rights which my
              preaching gives me (NEB).
               Do not confuse this with wave, chiefly in conjunction with
              aside, away, as (wrongly) in But the Earl simply waived the
              subject away with his hand (Trollope).

    want, need
              (verbs) in the sense 'require' can be followed (1) by a gerund
              as object, e.g. Your hair needs or wants cutting or (2) by an
              object and a past participle as complement to the object (with
              the verb 'to be' omitted), e.g. We want or need this changed.
               The idiom We want or need this changing (perhaps a mixture of
              the two constructions, but having the sense of (2)) is informal
              only.

    well      is joined by a hyphen to following participle when the
              combination is used attributively, e.g. A well-worn argument.
              Predicatively a hyphen is not necessary unless the combination
              is to be distinguished in meaning from the two words written
              separately, e.g. He is well-spoken but The words were well
              spoken.

    what ever, when ever, where ever:
              see ever.

    whence    meaning 'from where'. does not need to be preceded by from.

    who ever  see ever.

    whoever,  any one who, no matter who:  use whoever for the objective case
              as well as the subjective, rather than whomever, which is rather
              stilted.

    -wise     (suffix) added to nouns (1) forming adverbs of manner, is very
              well established, but is now, except in fixed expressions like
              clockwise, rather literary or poetic, e.g. The Saint wears tight
              yellow trousers...and is silkily shaven Romanwise (TLS); (2)
              forming viewpoint adverbs (meaning 'as regards--'), e.g. I can
              eat only Cox's Orange Pippins, and am in mourning applewise from
              April to October (Iris Murdoch).
               (2) is widely regarded as unacceptable in formal usage.
               Adverbs of type (2) are formed on nouns only, not on
              adjectives: hence sentences like The ratepayers would have to
              shoulder an extra burden financial-wise are incorrect
              (substitute...burden finance-wise or financial burden).

     without = 'unless' is illiterate, e.g. Without you have a bit of class
              already, your town gets no new theatre (Listener).
              See also hardly.

    womankind is better than womenkind (cf.mankind).

    worth while
              is usually written as two words predicatively, but as one
              attributively, e.g. He thought it worth while, or a worthwhile
              undertaking, to publish the method.

    write     (to compose a letter) with indirect personal object, e.g. I will
              write you about it, is not acceptable British English (but is
              good Amer. English).

 4.0 Grammar
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

            Language is an instrument for communication. The language which
            can with the greatest ease make the finest and most numerous
            distinctions of meaning is the best.
                     (C. S. Lewis, Studies in Words)

    THIS section deals with specific problems of grammar; it makes no attempt
    at a systematic exposition of English syntax.

    It is notoriously difficult to find convenient labels for many of the
    topics on which guidance is needed. Wherever possible. the headings chosen
    for the entries are, or include, the words which actually cause
    grammatical problems (e.g. as, may or might).  Some headings include the
    grammatical endings involved (e.g.  -ing). But inevitably many entries
    have had to be given abstract labels (e.g. double passive, subjunctive).
    To compensate for this, a number of cross-references are included, by
    which the user can find a way to the required entry.  The aim throughout
    is to tackle a particular problem immediately and to give a recommendation
    as soon as the problem has been identified.  Explanations entailing wider
    grammatical principles are postponed or even omitted.


 4.1 adverbial relative clauses
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A relative clause, expressing time, manner, or place, can follow a noun
    governed by a preposition (on the day in the example below):

    On the day that you eat from it, you will certainly die (NEB)

    It is possible for the relative clause to begin with the same preposition
    and which, e.g.

          On the day on which this occurred, I was away

    But it is a perfectly acceptable idiom to use a relative clause introduced
    by that without repetition of the preposition, especially after the nouns
    day, morning, night, time, year, etc., manner, sense, way (see way,
    relative clause following), place, e.g.

    Envy in the consuming sense that certain persons display
    the trait (Anthony Powell)

    It is, if anything, even more usual for that to be omitted:

    He cannot have been more than thirty at the time we met him
    (Evelyn Waugh)
    If he would take it in the sense she meant it (L. P. Hartley)
    On the day you pass over the Jordan (NEB)

 4.2 adverbs without -ly
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Most adverbs consist of an adjective + the ending -ly, e.g. badly,
    differently. For the changes in spelling that the addition of -ly may
    require, see -ly.

    Normally the use of the ordinary adjective as an adverb, without -ly, is
    non-standard, e.g.

       I was sent for special
       The Americans speak different from us
       They just put down their tools sudden and cut and run

    There are, however, a number of words which are both adjective and adverb
    and cannot add the adverbial ending -ly:

       early         fast      much
       enough        little    straight
       far           low

    Some other adjectives can be used as adverbs both with and without -ly.
    The two forms have different meanings:

       deep          high      near
       hard          late

    The forms without -ly are the adverbs more closely similar in meaning to
    the adjectives, as the following examples illustrate:

     deep: Still waters run deep
           He read deep into the night

     hard: They hit me hard in the chest
           He lost his hard-earned money
           We will be hard put to it to be ready by Christmas

     high: It soared high above us
           Don't fix your hopes too high

     late: I will stay up late to finish it
           A drawing dated as late as 1960

     near: He won't come near me
           As near as makes no difference
           Near-famine conditions

    The forms with -ly have meanings more remote from those of the adjectives:

     deeply is chiefly figurative, e.g. Deeply in love
     hardly = 'scarcely', e.g. He hardly earned his money
     highly is chiefly figurative, e.g. Don't value possessions too highly
     lately = 'recently', e.g. I have been very tired lately
     nearly = 'almost', e.g. The conditions were nearly those of a famine

     The forms with and without -ly are not interchangeable and should not be
    confused.

    See also -lily adverbs

 4.3 article, omission of
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    To omit, or not to omit, a (an) and the?

    Omission of the definite or indefinite article before a noun or noun
    phrase in apposition to a name is a journalistic device, e.g.

    Clarissa, American business woman, comes to England
    (Radio Times)
    Nansen, hero and humanitarian, moves among them
    (The Times)

    It is more natural to write an American business woman, the hero and
    humanitarian.

    Similarly, when the name is in apposition to the noun or noun phrase, and
    the article is omitted, the effect is of journalistic style, e.g.

    NUM President Arthur Scargill
    Best-selling novelist Barbara Cartland
    Unemployed labourer William Smith

    Preferably write: The NUM President, The best-selling novelist, An
    unemployed labourer (with a comma before and after the name which
    follows).

    After as it is possible to omit a or the, e.g.

    As manipulator of words, the author reminded me of X.Y.
    The Soviet system could no longer be regarded as sole model for
    Communism everywhere

    It is preferable not to omit these words, however, except where the noun
    or noun phrase following is treated as a kind of generic mass noun, e.g.

    The vivid relation between himself, as man, and the sunflower, as
    sunflower (D. H. Lawrence)

 4.4 as, case following
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    In the following sentences, formal usage requires the subjective case (I,
    he, she, we, they) because the pronoun would be the subject if a verb were
    supplied:

    You are just as intelligent as he (in full, as he is)
    Widmerpool...might not have heard the motif so often as I (Anthony
    Powell) (in full, as I had

    Informal usage permits You are just as intelligent as him.

    Formal English uses the objective case (me, him, her, us, them) only when
    the pronoun would be the object if a verb were supplied:

    I thought you preferred John to Mary, but I see that you like
    her just as much as him (which means...just as much as you like him)

    In real usage, sentences like this are rare and not very natural. It is
    more usual for the verb to be included in the sentence or for the thought
    to be expressed in a different construction.

 4.5 as if, as though
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    For the tense following these see as if, as though.

 4.6 auxiliary verbs
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There are sixteen auxiliary verbs in English, three primary auxiliaries
    (used in the compounding of ordinary verbs) and thirteen modal auxiliaries
    (used to express mood, and, to some extent, tense).

    Primary: be, do, have

    Modal:   can         ought (to)
             could       shall
             dare        should
             may         used (to)
             might       will
             must        would
             need

    Auxiliaries differ from regular verbs in the following ways:

    1.  They can precede the negative not, instead of taking the do not
        construction, e.g. I cannot but I do not know;

    2.  They can precede the subject in questions, instead of taking the do
        construction, e.g. Can you hear but Do you know.

        The modal auxiliaries additionally differ from regular verbs in the
        following ways:

    3.  They are invariable: they do not add -s for the third person present,
        and do not form a separate past tense in -ed; e.g. He must go; he must
        have seen it.

    4.  They are usually followed by the bare infinitive; e.g. He will go, he
        can go (not 'to go' as with other verbs, e.g.  He intends to go, he is
        able to go).

    Use of auxiliaries

    In reported speech and some other that-clauses can, may, shall, and will
    become could, might, should, and would for the past tense:

    He said that he could do it straight away
    I told you that I might arrive unexpectedly
    I knew that when I grew up I should be a writer (George Orwell)
    Did you think that the money you brought would be enough?

    In clauses of this kind, the auxiliaries must, need, and ought, which
    normally refer to the present tense, can also be used for the past tense:

    I had meant to return direct to Paris, but this business...meant that
    I must go to London (Evelyn Waugh)
    To go to church had made her feel she need not reproach herself for
    impropriety ( V. S. Pritchett)
    She was quite aware that she ought not to quarter Freddy there
    (G. B. Shaw)

    Note that this use is restricted to that-clauses. It would not be
    permissible to use must, need, or ought for the past tense in a main
    sentence; for example, one could not say:  Yesterday I must go.

    Further discussion of the use of auxiliary verbs will be found under

        "can and may" in topic 4.8,
        "dare" in topic 4.15,
        "have" in topic 4.21,
        "need" in topic 4.33,
        "ought" in topic 4.37,
        "shall and will" in topic 4.43,
        "should and would" in topic 4.44,
        "used to" in topic 4.56,
        "were or was" in topic 4.58.

 4.7 but, case following
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The personal pronoun following but (= 'except') should be in the case it
    would have if a verb were supplied.

    I walked through the mud of the main street. Who but I? (Kipling)
    Our uneducated brethren who have, under God, no defence but us
    (C. S. Lewis)

    In the Kipling example I is used because it would be the subject of I
    walked. In the Lewis example us is used because it would be the object of
    who have (i.e. 'who have us as their only defence').

 4.8 can and may
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The auxiliary verbs can and may are both used to express permission, but
    may is more formal and polite:

    I'm going to come and see you some time--may I?
    (Evelyn Waugh)

 4.9 collective nouns
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Collective nouns are singular words that denote many individuals, e.g.

    army
    audience
    board (of directors)
    choir
    clan
    class
    club
    committee
    company
    congregation
    crowd
    family
    fleet
    flock
    gang
    government
    group
    herd
    jury
    majority
    militia
    navy
    orchestra
    parliament
    party (body of persons)
    squad
    swarm
    team
    tribe
    union (i.e. trade union)

    the aristocracy       the laity
    the bourgeoisie       the nobility
    the Cabinet           the proletariat
    the clergy            the public
    the elit             the upper class
    the gentry            the working class
    the intelligentsia

    It is normal for collective nouns, being singular, to be followed by
    singular verbs and pronouns (is, has, consists, and it in the examples
    below):

    The Government is determined to beat inflation, as it has promised
    Their family is huge: it consists of five boys and three girls
    The bourgeoisie is despised for not being proletarian (C. S. Lewis)

    The singular verb and pronouns are preferable unless the collective is
    clearly and unmistakably used to refer to separate individuals rather than
    to a united body, e.g.

    The Cabinet has made its decision, but
    The Cabinet are resuming their places around the table at Number
    10 Downing Street
    The Brigade of Guards is on parade, but
    The Brigade of Guards are above average height

    The singular should always be used if the collective noun is qualified by
    a singular word like this, that, every, etc.:

    This family is divided
    Every team has its chance to win

    If a relative clause follows, it must be which + singular verb or who +
    plural verb, e.g.

    It was not the intelligentsia, but just intellectual society, which was
    gathered there (John Galsworthy)
    The working party who had been preparing the decorations
     (Evelyn Waugh)

     Do not mix singular and plural, as (wrongly) in

    The congregation were now dispersing.
    It tended to form knots and groups

 4.10 comparison of adjectives and adverbs
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Whether to use -er, -est or more, most.

    The two ways of forming the comparative and superlative of adjectives and
    adverbs are:

        a.  The addition of the comparative and superlative suffixes -er and
            -est (for spelling changes that may be required see  p. 18).
            Monosyllabic adjectives and adverbs almost always require these
            suffixes, e.g.

            big (bigger, biggest),
            soon (sooner, soonest),

            and so normally do many adjectives of two syllables, e.g.

            narrow (narrower, narrowest),
            silly (sillier, silliest).

        b.  The placing of the comparative and superlative adverbs more and
            most before the adjective or adverb.  These are used with
            adjectives of three syllables or more (e.g. difficult, memorable),
            participles (e.g. bored, boring), many adjectives of two syllables
            (e.g. afraid, awful, childish, harmless, static), and adverbs
            ending in -ly (e.g. highly, slowly).

    Adjectives with two syllables vary between the use of the suffixes and of
    the adverbs.

    There are many which never take the suffixes, e.g.

    antique    breathless    futile
    bizarre    constant      steadfast

    There is also a large class which are acceptable with either, e.g.

    clever    handsome    polite
    common    honest      solemn
    cruel     pleasant    tranquil
    extreme

    The choice is largely a matter of style. Some examples will show how much
    variation there is in literary English.

    With the suffixes:

    An attitude of completest indifference (George Orwell)
    The extremest forms of anti-Semitism (Lewis Namier)
    You are so much honester than I am (Iris Murdoch)
    Now the stupidest of us knows (C. S. Lewis)

    With the adverbs:

    I was a bit more clever than the other lads (Angus Wilson)
    The most solemn of Jane Austen's beaux (Iris Murdoch)
    Those periods which we think most tranquil (C. S. Lewis)

    With a mixture in one sentence:

    Only the dirtiest and most tipsy of cooks (Evelyn Waugh)

    Even monosyllabic adjectives can sometimes take more and most:

    (i) When two adjectives are compared with each other, e.g.

    More dead than alive
    More good than bad
    More well-known than popular

    This is standard (we would not say 'better than bad' or 'better-known than
    popular').

    (ii) Occasionally, for stylistic reasons, e.g.

    I am the more bad because I realize where my badness lies
    (L. P. Hartley)
    This was never more true than at present

    (iii) Thoughtlessly, e.g.

    Facts that should be more well known
    The most well-dressed man in town
    Wimbledon will be yet more hot tomorrow

     These are not acceptable: substitute better known, best dressed, and
    hotter.

 4.11 comparisons
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Comparisons between two persons or things require the comparative (-er or
    more) in constructions like the following:

    I cannot tell which of the two is the elder (not eldest)
    Of the two teams, they are the slower-moving (not slowest-moving)

    The superlative is of course used when more than two are compared.

 4.12 compound subject
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A subject consisting of two singular nouns or noun phrases joined by and
    normally takes a plural verb:

    My son and daughter are twins
    Where to go and what to see were my main concern

    If one half of the subject is the pronoun I or the pronoun you, and the
    other is a noun or third person singular pronoun (he, she, or it), or if
    the subject is you and I the verb must be plural.

    He and I are good friends
    Do my sister and I look alike?
    You and your mother have similar talents
    You and l are hardly acquainted

    But if the phrase containing and represents a single item, it is followed
    by a singular verb:

    The bread and butter was scattered on the floor
    (W. Somerset Maugham)

    And similarly if the two parts of the subject refer to a single
    individual:

    His friend and legal adviser, John Smith, was present
    My son and heir is safe!

    See also "neither...nor" in topic 4.34 and "subjects joined by (either...)
    or" in topic 4.48

 4.13 co-ordination
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The linking of two main clauses by a comma alone, without any connecting
    conjunction, is sometimes said to be incorrect. It is on occasion used by
    good writers, however, as the examples show. It should be regarded as
    acceptable if used sparingly.

    The peasants possess no harrows, they merely plough the soil
    several times over (George Orwell)
    Charles carried a mackintosh over his arm, he was stooping a
    little (C. P. Snow)
    I began to wonder when the Presidential Candidate would appear,
    he must have had a heavy handicap (Graham Greene)

 4.14 correlative conjunctions
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The correct placing of the pairs

    both...and                  neither...nor
    either...or                 not only...but (also)

    A sentence containing any of these pairs must be so constructed that the
    part of the sentence introduced by the first member of the pair (both,
    either, neither, or not only) is parallel in structure to the part
    introduced by the second member (and, or, neither, or but (also)).

    The rule is that if one covers up the two correlative words and all the
    words between them, the remaining sentence should still be grammatical.

    The following sentence from a typical newspaper advertisement illustrates
    this rule:

    Candidates will have a background in either commercial electronics
    or university research

    Because in precedes either, it need not be repeated after or. If it had
    followed either, it would have had to be inserted after or as well. But
    the sentence as given is the most economical structure possible.

    In the following example the preposition of comes after either and must
    therefore be repeated after or:

    He did not wish to pay the price either of peace
    or of war (George Orwell)

    This conforms with the rule stated above, while perhaps sounding better
    than of either peace or war (which would be as good grammatically).

    It is, however, not uncommon for the conjunctions to be placed so that the
    two halves are not quite parallel, even in the writings of careful
    authors, e.g.

    I end neither with a death nor a marriage
    (W. Somerset Maugham)
    People who either hadn't been asked to pay or
    who were simply not troubling themselves (V. S. Pritchett)

    In the first example, with belongs to both halves and needs to be repeated
    after nor. In the second, who precedes either and strictly need not be
    repeated after or.

    These sentences exhibit fairly trivial slips that rarely cause difficulty
    (except in the case of not only:  see only in topic 3.0.

     A more serious error is the placing of the first correlative conjunction
    too late, so that words belonging only to the first half are carried over
    to the second, resulting in a grammatical muddle, e.g.

    The other Exocet was either destroyed or blew up (BBC News)

    This should be carefully avoided.

 4.15 dare
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The verb to dare can be used either like a regular verb or like an
    auxiliary verb. Either use is entirely acceptable (though in a particular
    context, one may sound better than the other).

    As an ordinary verb it forms such parts as:

    I dare           I do not dare          do I dare?
    he dares         he does not dare       does he dare?
    he dared         he did not dare        did he dare?
    I would dare     I have dared

    As an auxiliary verb it forms:

    I dare not          he dared not
    he dare not         dared he?
    dare he?

    The first use, as an ordinary verb, is always acceptably followed by the
    to-infinitive, e.g.

    I knew what I would find if I dared to look (Jean Rhys)
    James did not dare to carry out the sentence (Frederic Raphael)

    But many of the forms can also be followed by the bare infinitive.  This
    sometimes sounds more natural:

    None of which they'd dare go near (John Osborne)
    Don't you dare put that light on (Shelagh Delaney)

    The second use, as an auxiliary verb, normally requires the bare
    infinitive, e.g.

    How dare he keep secrets from me? (G. B. Shaw)
    He dared not risk being carried past his destination
    (C. S. Forester)

 4.16 double passive
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The construction whereby a passive infinitive directly follows a passive
    verb is correctly used in the following:

    The prisoners were ordered to be shot
    This music is intended to be played on a piano

    The rule is that if the subject and the first passive verb can be changed
    into the active, leaving the passive infinitive intact, the sentence is
    correctly formed. The examples above (if a subject, say he, is supplied)
    can be changed back to:

    He ordered the prisoners to be shot
    He intends this music to be played on a piano

    In other words, the passive infinitive is not part of the passive
    construction. An active infinitive could equally well be part of the
    sentence, e.g.

    The prisoners were ordered to march

    The examples below violate the rule because both the passive verb and the
    passive infinitive have to be made active in order to form a grammatical
    sentence:

    The order was attempted to be carried out
    (active: He attempted to carry out the order)

    A new definition was sought to be inserted in the Bill
    (active: He sought to insert a new definition in the Bill)

    This 'double passive' construction is unacceptable.

    The passive of the verbs to fear and to say can be followed by either an
    active or a passive infinitive, e.g.

    (i) The passengers are feared to have drowned
    The escaped prisoner is said to be very dangerous

    or

    (ii) The passengers are feared to have been killed
    The escaped prisoner is said to have been sighted

    The construction at (ii) is not the double passive and is entirely
    acceptable. Both constructions are sometimes found with other verbs of
    saying (e.g. to allege, to assert, to imply):

    Morris demonstrated that Mr Elton was obviously implied to be
    impotent (David Lodge)

 4.17 either...or:
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    see "subjects joined by (either...) or" in topic 4.48.

 4.18 either (pronoun)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Either is a singular pronoun and should be followed by a singular verb:

    Enormous evils, either of which depends on somebody
    else's voice (Louis MacNeice)

    In the following example the plural verb accords with the notional meaning
    'both parents were not'.

    It was improbable that either of our parents were giving
    thought to the matter (J. I. M. Stewart)

    This is quite common in informal usage, but should not be carried over
    into formal prose.

 4.19 gender of indefinite expressions
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    It is often uncertain what personal pronoun should be used to refer back
    to the indefinite pronouns and adjectives in the following list:

    any               everybody
    anybody           everyone
    anyone            no (+ noun)
    each              nobody
    every (+ noun)    none
    no one            somebody
    some (+ noun)     someone

    and also to refer back to (a) person, used indefinitely, or a male and
    female noun linked by (either...) or or neither... nor, e.g.

    Has anybody eaten his/their lunch yet?
    A person who is upset may vent his/their feelings on his/their family
    Neither John nor Mary has a home of their/his or her own

    If it is known that the individuals referred to are all of the same sex,
    there is no difficulty; use he or she as appropriate:

    Everyone in the women's movement has had her own experience
    of sexual discrimination

    If, however, the sex of those referred to is unknown or deliberately left
    indefinite, or if the reference is to a mixed group, the difficulty arises
    that English has no singular pronoun to denote common gender.

    The grammarians' recommendation, during the past two centuries, has been
    that he (him, himself, his) should be used. Many good writers follow this:

    Everyone talked at the top of his voice (W. Somerset Maugham)
    Everyone took his place in a half-circle about the fire
    (Malcolm Bradbury)
    (The context of each shows that the company was mixed.)

    The long street in which nobody knows his neighbour
    (G. B. Shaw)
    Each person should give as he has decided for himself (NEB)

    Popular usage, however, has for at least five centuries favoured the
    plural pronoun they (them, themselves, their).

    This is entirely acceptable in informal speech:

    Nobody would ever marry if they thought it over
    (G. B. Shaw)
    It's the sort of thing any of us would dislike,  wouldn't they?
    (C. P. Snow)

    It is by no means uncommon in more formal contexts:

    Nobody stopped to stare, everyone had themselves to think about
    (Susan Hill)
    His own family were occupied, each with their particular guests
    (Evelyn Waugh)
    Delavacquerie allowed everyone to examine the  proofs as long as they
    wished (Anthony  Powell)

    (The context of the second and third example shows that the company was
    mixed.)

    Many people regard it as inequitable that the masculine pronoun he should
    be used to include both sexes, and therefore prefer to use they.

    One can avoid the difficulty from time to time by writing he or she, as
    many writers do on awkward occasions:

    Nobody has room in his or her life for more than one such
    relationship at a time (G. B. Shaw)

    But this grows unwieldy with repetition:

    If l ever wished to disconcert anyone, all I had to do was to ask
    him (or her) how many friends he/she had (Frederic Raphael)

    There are some contexts in which neither he nor they will seem
    objectionable. In others, where he and they both seem inappropriate for
    the reasons given, it may be necessary simply to recast the sentence.

 4.20 group possessive
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The group possessive is the construction by which the ending -'s of the
    possessive case can be added to the last word of a noun phrase, which is
    regarded as a single unit, e.g.

    The king of Spain's daughter
    John and Mary's baby
    Somebody else's umbrella
    A quarter of an hour's drive

    Expressions like these are natural and acceptable.

    Informal language, however, permits the extension of the construction to
    long and complicated phrases:

    The people in the house opposite's geraniums
    The woman I told you about on the phone yesterday's name is Thompson
    The man who called last week's umbrella is still in the hall

    In these, the connection between the words forming the group possessive is
    much looser and more complicated than in the earlier examples. The effect
    is often somewhat ludicrous.

     Expressions of this sort should not be used in serious prose.
    Substitute:

    The geraniums of the people in the house opposite
    The name of the woman I told you about on the phone yesterday is Thompson
    The umbrella of the man who called last week is still in the hall

 4.21 have
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  The verb to have, in some of its uses, can form its interrogative and
        negative either with or without the verb to do, e.g. Do you have/have
        you?, You don't have/you haven't.

        In sentences like those below, have is a verb of event, meaning
        'experience'. The interrogative (in the first example) and the
        negative (in the second example) are always formed in the regular way,
        using the verb do:

        Do you ever have nightmares?
        We did not have an easy time getting here

        In the next pair of sentences, have is a verb of state, meaning
        'possess'. When used in this sense, the interrogative (in the first
        example) and negative (in the second example) can be formed in the
        manner of an auxiliary verb, without the verb do:

        What have you in common with the child of five whose
        photograph your mother keeps? (George Orwell)
        The truth was that he hadn't the answer
        (Joyce Cary)

        In more informal language, the verb got is added, e.g.  What have you
        got, He hadn't got the answer. This is not usually suitable for formal
        usage.

        It was formerly usual to distinguish the sense 'experience' from the
        sense 'possess' by using the do-formation for the first and the
        auxiliary formation for the second (but only in the present tense).
        Hence I don't have indigestion (as a rule) was kept distinct from I
        haven't (got) indigestion (at the moment). The use of the
        do-construction when the meaning was 'possess' was an Americanism, but
        it is now generally acceptable.

         However, the use of do as a substitute verb for have, common
        informally, is not acceptable in formal prose:

        I had stronger feelings than she did (substitute than she had)
        Some have money, some don't (substitute some haven't)

    2.  Have is often wrongly inserted after I'd in sentences like:

        If I'd have known she'd be here I don't suppose I'd have come
        (Character in play by John Osborne)

        This is common, and hardly noticed, in speech, but should not occur in
        formal writing. The correct construction is:

        If I'd known she'd be here...

        Without the contraction, the clause would read: If I had known, with
        the past perfect, which is the correct form in this kind of if-clause.
        The only expression that the mistaken If I'd have known could stand
        for is If I would have known, which is impossible in this context.

 4.22 he who, she who
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    He who and she who are correctly used when he and she are the subject of
    the main clause, and who is the subject of the relative clause:

    He who hesitates is lost
    She who was a star in the old play may find herself a super in the
    new (C. S. Lewis)

    In these examples he and she are the subjects of is lost and may find
    respectively; who is the subject of hesitates and was.

    He who and she who should not be treated as invariable. They should change
    to him who and her who if the personal pronouns are not the subject of the
    main clause:

    The distinction between the man who gives with conviction and him (not he)
    who is simply buying a title

    Similarly who must become whom if it is not the subject of the relative
    clause:

    I sought him whom my soul loveth (Authorized Version)

    See also who and whom (interrogative and relative pronouns).

 4.23 -ics, nouns in
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Nouns ending in -ics denoting subjects or disciplines are sometimes
    treated as singular and sometimes as plural. Examples are:

    apologetics                 genetics                   optics
    classics (as                linguistics                phonetics
    a study)                    mathematics                physics
    dynamics                    mechanics                  politics
    economics                   metaphysics                statistics
    electronics                 obstetrics                 tactics
    ethics

    When used strictly as the name of a discipline they are treated as
    singular:

    Psychometrics is unable to investigate the nature of
    intelligence (Guardian)
    The quest for a hermeneutics (TLS)

    So also when the complement is singular:

    Mathematics is his strong point

    When used more loosely, to denote a manifestation of qualities, often
    accompanied by a possessive, they are treated as plural:

    His politics were a mixture of fear, greed and envy
    (Joyce Cary)
    I don't understand the mathematics of it, which are complicated
    The acoustics in this hall are dreadful
    Their tactics were cowardly

    So also when they denote a set of activities or pattern of behaviour, as
    commonly with words like

    acrobatics      dramatics      heroics
    athletics       gymnastics     hysterics
    callisthenics

    E.g. The mental gymnastics required to believe this are beyond me

    These words usually retain a plural verb even with a singular complement:

    The acrobatics are just the social side (Tom Stoppard)

 4.24 infinitive, present or perfect
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The perfect infinitive is correctly used when it refers to a state or
    action earlier in time than that referred to by the verb on which it
    depends, e.g.

    If it were real life and not a play, that is the part it would be
    best to have acted (C. S. Lewis)
    Someone seems to have been making a beast of himself here
    (Evelyn Waugh)

    In the above examples, the infinitives to have acted and to have been
    making relate to actions earlier in time than the verbs would be best and
    seems.

    Only if the first verb relates to the past and the infinitive relates to a
    state or action prior to that should a perfect infinitive follow a past or
    perfect verb, forming a sort of 'double past', e.g.

    When discussing sales with him yesterday, I should have liked
    to have seen the figures beforehand

    In this example I should have liked denotes the speaker's feelings during
    the discussion and to have seen denotes an action imagined as occurring
    before the discussion.

    If the state or action denoted by the infinitive is thought of as
    occurring at the same time as the verb on which it depends, then the
    present infinitive should be used:

    She would have liked to see what was on the television
    (Kingsley Amis)

    The 'double past' is often accidentally used in this kind of sentence
    informally, e.g.

    I should have liked to have gone to the party

    A literary example is:

    Mr. McGregor threw down the sack on the stone floor in a way that
    would have been extremely painful to the Flopsy Bunnies, if they had
    happened to have been inside it (Beatrix Potter)

    This should be avoided.

 4.25 -ing (gerund and participle)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  The -ing form of a verb can in some contexts be used in either of two
        constructions:

        a.  as a gerund (verbal noun) with a noun or pronoun in the possessive
            standing before it, e.g.

            In the event of Randall's not going (Iris Murdoch)
            She did not like his being High Church (L. P. Hartley)

        b.  as a participle with a noun in its ordinary form or a pronoun in
            the objective case standing before it, e.g.

            What further need would there have been to speak of another
            priest arising? (NEB)
            Dixon did not like him doing that (Kingsley Amis)

        The option of using either arises only when the word before the -ing
        form is a proper or personal noun (e.g.  John, father, teacher) or a
        personal pronoun.

        It is sometimes said that the construction with the possessive (as in
        (a) above) is obligatory. This rule, in its strict form, should be
        disregarded. Instead one should, in formal usage, try to employ the
        possessive construction wherever it is possible and natural:

        To whom, without its being ordered, the waiter immediately
        brought a plate of eggs and bacon (Evelyn Waugh)
        The danger of Joyce's turning them into epigrams
        (Anthony Burgess)

        But it is certainly not wrong to use the non-possessive construction
        if it sounds more natural, as in the New English Bible quotation
        above.

        Moreover, there is sometimes a nuance of meaning. She did not like his
        being High Church suggests that she did not like the fact that he was
        High Church, and need not imply personal antipathy, whereas Dixon did
        not like him doing that suggests an element of repugnance to the
        person as well as to his action.

        When using most non-personal nouns (e.g. luggage, meaning,
        permission), groups of nouns (e.g.  father and mother, surface area),
        non-personal pronouns (e.g. anything, something), and groups of
        pronouns (e.g. some of them), there is no choice of construction: the
        possessive would not sound idiomatic at all.

        Examples are:

        Travellers in Italy could depend on their luggage not
        being stolen (G. B. Shaw)
        Altogether removing possibility of its meaning being
        driven home (Anthony Powell)
        His lines were cited...without his permission having
        been asked (The Times)
        Due to her father and mother being married
        (Compton Mackenzie)
        Owing to its surface area being so large relative to
        its weight (George Orwell)
        The air of something unusual having happened
        (Arthur Conan Doyle)
        He had no objection to some of them listening
        (Arnold Bennett)

        When the word preceding the -ing form is a regular plural noun ending
        in -s, there is no spoken distinction between the possessive and the
        non-possessive form. It is unnecessary to write an apostrophe:

        If she knew about her daughters attending the party
        (Anthony Powell)

    2.  There is also variation between the gerundial and the participial uses
        of the -ing form after nouns like difficulty, point, trouble, and use.

        Formal English requires the gerundial use, the gerund being introduced
        by in (or of after use):

        There was...no difficulty in finding parking space
        (David Lodge)
        There doesn't seem much point in trying to explain everything
        (John Osborne)

        Informal usage permits the placing of the -ing form immediately after
        the noun, forming a participial construction, e.g.

        He had some trouble convincing Theo Craven
        (Lynne Reid Banks)
        The chairman had difficulty concealing his irritation

         This is not acceptable in formal usage.

 4.26 I or me, we or us, etc.
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is often confusion about which case of a personal pronoun to use
    when the pronoun stands alone or follows the verb to be.

    1.  When the personal pronoun stands alone, as when it forms the answer to
        a question, formal usage requires it to have the case it would have if
        the verb were supplied:

        Who killed Cock Robin?--I (in full, I killed him)
        Which of you did he approach?--Me (in full,
        he approached me)

        Informal usage permits the objective case in both kinds of sentence,
        but this is not acceptable in formal style. It so happens that the
        subjective case often sounds stilted. It is then best to avoid the
        problem by providing the substitute verb do, or, if the preceding
        sentence contains an auxiliary, by repeating the auxiliary, e.g.

        Who likes cooking?--I do
        Who can cook?--I can

    2.  When a personal pronoun follows it is, it was, it may be, it could
        have been, etc., it should always have the subjective case:

        Nobody could suspect that it was she
        (Agatha Christie)
        We are given no clue as to what it must have felt like to be
        he (C. S. Lewis)

        Informal usage favours the objective case:

        I thought it might have been him at the door
        Don't tell me it's them again!

     This is not acceptable in formal usage.

    When who or whom follows, the subjective case is obligatory in formal
    usage and quite usual informally:

    It was I who painted the back door purple
    It's they whom I shall be staying with in London

    The informal use of the objective case often sounds substandard:

    It was her who would get the blood off (Character in work by Patrick White)

    (For agreement between the personal pronoun antecedent and the verb in It
    is I who etc., see I who, you who, etc. )

    In constructions which have the form I am + noun or noun phrase + who, the
    verb following who agrees with the noun (the antecedent of who) and is
    therefore always in the third person (singular or plural):

    I am the sort of person who likes peace and quiet
    You are the fourth of my colleagues who's told me that
    (Character in work by Angus Wilson)
    ('s = has, agreeing with the fourth)

    The following is not standard, but must be explained by the uniqueness of
    the person denoted by the subject:

    How then canst thou be a god that hidest thyself? (NEB)

 4.27 I should or I would
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is often uncertainty whether to use should or would in the first
    person singular and plural before verbs such as like or think and before
    the adverbs rather and sooner.

    1.  Should is correct before verbs of liking, e.g. be glad, be inclined,
        care, like, and prefer:

        Would you like a beer?--I should prefer a cup of coffee,
        if you don't mind
        The very occasions on which we should most like to write
        a slashing review (C. S. Lewis)

    2.  Should is correct in tentative statements of opinion, with verbs such
        as guess, imagine, say, and think:

        I should imagine that you are right
        I should say so
        I shouldn't have thought it was difficult

    3.  Would is correct before the adverbs rather and sooner, e.g.

        I would truly rather be in the middle of this than sitting
        in that church in a tight collar (Susan Hill)

        Would is always correct with persons other than the first person
        singular and plural.

    See also should and would

 4.28 I who, you who, etc.
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The verb following a personal pronoun (I, you, he, etc.) + who should
    agree with the pronoun and should not be in the third person singular
    unless the third person singular pronoun precedes who:

    I, who have no savings to speak of, had to pay for the work

    This remains so even if the personal pronoun is in the objective case:

    They made me, who have no savings at all, pay for the work
    (not who has)

    When it is (it was, etc.)  precedes I who, etc., the same rule applies:
    the verb agrees with the personal pronoun:

    It's I who have done it
    It could have been we who were mistaken

    Informal usage sometimes permits the third person to be used (especially
    when the verb to be follows who):

    You who's supposed to be so practical!
    Is it me who's supposed to be keeping an eye on you?
    (Character in work by David Lodge)

     This is not acceptable in formal usage.

 4.29 like
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The objective case of personal pronouns is always used after the
    adjectives like and unlike:

    Unlike my mother and me, my sister is fair-haired
    (not Unlike my mother and I)

 4.30 -lily adverbs
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    When the adverbial suffix -ly is added to an adjective which already ends
    in -ly, the resulting adverb tends to have an unpleasant jingling sound,
    e.g. friendlily.

    Adverbs of this kind are divided into three groups, here arranged in order
    of decreasing acceptability:

    1.  Those formed from adjectives in which the final -ly is an integral
        part of the word, not a suffix, e.g. holily, jollily, sillily. These
        are the least objectionable and are quite often used.

    2.  Those of three syllables formed from adjectives in which the final -ly
        is itself a suffix, e.g. friendlily, ghastlily, statelily, uglily.
        These are occasionally found.

    3.  Those of four (or more) syllables formed from adjectives in which the
        final -ly is itself a suffix, e.g.  heavenlily, scholarlily. Such
        words have been recorded but are deservedly rare.

    The adverbs of groups 2 and 3 should be avoided if possible, by using the
    adjective with a noun like manner or way, e.g.  In a scholarly manner.

    A few adjectives in -ly can be used adverbially to qualify other
    adjectives, e.g. beastly cold, ghastly pale.  Occasionally, to avoid the
    use of an adverb in -lily, the plain adjective has been used to qualify a
    verb, e.g.

    Then I strolled leisurely along those dear, dingy streets
    (W. Somerset Maugham)

    This does not usually sound natural. It is recommended that in a leisurely
    (etc.) way should be used instead.

 4.31 may or might
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is sometimes confusion about whether to use may or might with the
    perfect infinitive referring to a past event, e.g. He may have done or He
    might have done.

    1.  If uncertainty about the action or state denoted by the perfect
        infinitive remains, i.e. at the time of speaking or writing the truth
        of the event is still unknown, then either may or might is acceptable:

        As they all wore so many different clothes of identically the same
        kind...there may have been several more or several less
        (Evelyn Waugh)
        For all we knew we were both bastards, although of course there
        might have been a ceremony (Graham Greene)

    2.  If there is no longer uncertainty about the event, or the matter was
        never put to the test, and therefore the event did not in fact occur,
        use might:

        If that had come ten days ago my whole life might have
        been different (Evelyn Waugh)
        You should not have let him come home alone, he might
        have got lost

         It is a common error to use may instead of might in these
        circumstances:

        If he (President Galtieri) had not invaded,
        then eventually the islands may have fallen into their lap

        I am grateful for his intervention without which they
        may have remained in the refugee camp indefinitely

        Schoenberg may never have gone atonal but for the
        break-up of his marriage

        (These are all from recent newspaper articles.  Might should be
        substituted for may in each.)

 4.32 measurement, nouns of
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is some uncertainty about when to use the singular form, and when
    the plural, of nouns of measurement.

    1.  All nouns of measurement remain in the singular form when compounded
        with a numeral and used attributively before another noun:

        A six-foot wall            A five-pound note
        A three-mile walk          A 1,000-megaton bomb

        This rule includes metric measurements:

        A ten-hectare field         A three-litre bottle

    2.  Foot remains in the singular form in expressions such as:

        I am six foot    She is five foot two

        But feet is used where an adjective, or the word inches, follows, e.g.

        I am six feet tall                           She is five feet three inches
        It is ten feet long

    Stone and hundredweight remain in the singular form in plural expressions,
    e.g.

    I weigh eleven stone                  Three hundredweight of coal

    Metric measurements always take the plural form when not used
    attributively:

    This measures three metres by two metres
    Two kilos of sugar

    Informally, some other nouns of measurement are used in the singular form
    in plural expressions, e.g.

    That will be two pound fifty, please

     This is non-standard.

    See also quantity, nouns of

 4.33 need
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The verb to need, when followed by an infinitive, can be used either like
    an ordinary verb or like an auxiliary.

    1.  Need is used like an ordinary verb, and followed by the to-
        infinitive, in the present tense when the sentence is neither negative
        nor interrogative, in the past tense always, and in all compound
        tenses (e.g. the future and perfect):

        One needs friends, one needs to be a friend
        (Susan Hill)
        One did not need to be a clairvoyant to see that war...was coming
        (George Orwell)

    2.  Need can be used like an auxiliary verb in the present tense in
        negative and interrogative sentences. This means that:

        a.  The third person singular need not add -s:

            I do not think one need look farther than this
            (George Orwell)

        b.  For the negative, need not can replace does not need:

            One need not be an advocate of censorship to recommend the
            cautious use of poison (Frederic Raphael)

        c.  For the interrogative, need I (you, etc.) can replace do l need:

            Need I add that she is my bitterest enemy? (G. B. Shaw)

        d.  The bare infinitive can follow instead of the to-infinitive:

            Company that keeps them smaller than they need be
            (Bookseller)
            (This is negative in sense, for it implies They need not be
            as small as this)

        This auxiliary verb use is optional, not obligatory. The regular
        constructions are equally correct:

        I do not think one needs to look...
        One does not need to be...
        Do l need to add...
        Smaller than they need to be...

        One should choose whichever sounds more natural. It is important,
        however, to avoid mixing the two kinds of construction, as in the two
        following examples:

        One needs not be told that (etc.)
        What proved vexing, it needs be said was (etc.)

 4.34 neither...nor
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Two singular subjects linked by neither...nor can be constructed with
    either a singular or a plural verb. Strictly and logically a singular verb
    is required (since both subjects are not thought of as governing the verb
    at the same time). When the two subjects are straightforward third person
    pronouns or nouns, it is best to follow this rule:

    Neither he nor his wife has arrived
    There is neither a book nor a picture in the house

    Informal usage permits the plural and it has been common in the writings
    of good authors for a long time:

    Neither painting nor fighting feed men (Ruskin)

    When one of the two subjects is plural and the other singular, the verb
    should be made plural and the plural subject placed nearer to it:

    Neither the teacher nor the pupils understand the problem

    When one of the subjects is I or you and the other is a third person
    pronoun or a noun, or when one is I and the other you, the verb can be
    made to agree with the subject that is nearer to it. However, this does
    not always sound natural, e.g.

    Neither my son nor I am good at figures

    One can recast the sentence, but this can spoil the effect intended by
    using neither...nor. It is often better to use the plural, as good writers
    do:

    Neither Isabel nor I are timid people (H. G. Wells)
    Neither Emily nor I were quite prepared for the title
    (Anthony Powell)

    This is not illogical if neither...nor is regarded as the negative of
    both...and.

 4.35 neither (pronoun)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Neither is a singular pronoun and strictly requires a singular verb:

    Neither of us likes to be told what to do

    Informal usage permits not only a plural verb, but also a plural
    complement:

    Neither of us like tennis
    Neither of us are good players

    Although this is widely regarded as incorrect, it has been an established
    construction for three or four centuries:

    Thersites' body is as good as Ajax', When neither are
    alive (Shakespeare)
    Neither were great inventors (Dryden)

    It is recommended that one should follow the rule requiring the singular
    unless it leads to awkwardness, as when neither he nor she is appropriate:

    John and Mary will have to walk. Neither of them have brought their cars

 4.36 none (pronoun)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The pronoun none can be followed either by singular verb and singular
    pronouns, or by plural ones. Either is acceptable, although the plural
    tends to be more common.

    Singular:   None of them was allowed to forget for a moment
                (Anthony Powell)
    Plural:     None of the fountains ever play (Evelyn Waugh)
                None of the authors expected their books to become
                best-sellers (Cyril Connolly)

 4.37 ought
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Oughtn't or didn't ought?

    The standard form of the negative of ought is ought not or oughtn't:

    A look from Claudia showed me I ought not to have begun it
    (V. S. Pritchett)

    Being an auxiliary verb, ought can precede not and does not require the
    verb do. It is non-standard to form the negative with do (didn't ought):

    I hope that none here will say I did anything I didn't ought.
    For I only done my duty (Character in work by Michael Innes)

    When the negative is used to reinforce a question in a short extra clause
    or 'question tag', the negative should be formed according to the rule
    above:

    You ought to be pleased, oughtn't you? (not didn't you?)

    In the same way do should not be used as a substitute verb for ought, e.g.

    Ought he to go?--Yes, he ought (not he did)
    You ought not to be pleased, ought you? (not did you?)

 4.38 participles
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A participle used in place of a verb in a subordinate clause must have an
    explicit subject to qualify. If no subject precedes the participle within
    the clause, the participle is understood to qualify the subject of the
    main sentence. In the following sentences the participles running and
    propped qualify the subjects she and we:

    Running to catch a bus, she just missed it (Anthony Powell)
    We both lay there, propped on our elbows (Lynne Reid Banks)

    It is a frequent error to begin a sentence with a participial clause, with
    no subject expressed, and to continue it with a main clause in which the
    subject is not the word which the participle qualifies:

    Driving along the road, the church appeared on our left
    (We, not the church, is the subject of driving)

    Having been relieved of his portfolio in 1976, the scheme
    was left to his successor at the Ministry to  complete
    (He, or a proper name, is the subject of having been relieved)

    In sentences like these one must either recast the main clause so that its
    subject is the same as that of the subordinate clause, or recast the
    subordinate clause using a finite verb:

    Driving along the road, we saw the church appear on our left
    As we were driving along the road the church appeared on our left

    Sometimes a subject can be supplied in the participial clause, the clause
    remaining otherwise unchanged. This is usually only possible when the
    participle is being or having:

    Jones having been relieved of his portfolio in 1976, the scheme was
    left to his successor at the Ministry to complete

    If the subject supplied in accordance with this rule is a personal pronoun
    it should be in the subjective case:

    He being such a liar, no one will believe him when he tells the truth
    He rose bearing her, she still weeping, and the others formed
    a procession behind (Iris Murdoch)

    When the participial clause includes a subject it should not be separated
    by a comma from the participle:

    Bernadette being her niece, she feels responsible for the girl's
    moral welfare (David Lodge)
    (Not: Bernadette, being her niece, she...)

    This in contrast with the punctuation of the other kind of participial
    clause, in which the participle qualifies the subject of the main
    sentence. If this type of participial clause follows the subject, it is
    either marked off by a pair of commas or not marked off at all:

    The man, hoping to escape, jumped on to a bus
    A man carrying a parcel jumped on to the bus

    The rule that a participle must have an explicit subject does not apply to
    participial clauses whose subject is indefinite (= 'one' or 'people').  In
    these the clause is used adverbially, standing apart from and commenting
    on the content of the sentence:

    Judging from his appearance, he has had a night out
    Taking everything into consideration, you were lucky to escape
    Roughly speaking, this is how it went

    The participial clauses here are equivalent to 'If one judges...' 'If one
    takes...' 'If one speaks..' Expressions of this kind are entirely
    acceptable.

 4.39 preposition at end
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    It is a natural feature of the English language that many sentences and
    clauses end with a preposition, and has been since the earliest times. The
    alleged rule that forbids the placing of the preposition at the end of a
    clause or sentence should be disregarded.

    The preposition cannot be moved to an earlier place in many sentences,
    e.g.

    What did you do that for?
    What a mess this room is in!
    The bed had not been slept in
    She was good to look at and easy to talk to (W. Somerset Maugham)

    There are other kinds of construction which, generally speaking, allow a
    choice between placing the preposition at the end or placing it
    earlier--principally relative clauses, in which the preposition can stand
    before the relative pronoun if it is not placed finally. The choice is
    very often a matter of style. The preposition has been placed before the
    relative pronoun in:

    The present is the only time in which any duty can be done
    (C. S. Lewis)
    The...veteran for whom nothing has been real since the
    Big Push (David Lodge)

    But it stands at or near the end in:

    Harold's Philistine outlook, which she had acquiesced in
    for ten years (L. P. Hartley)
    The sort of attentive memory...that I should have become accustomed
    to (C. P. Snow)

    But notice that some prepositions cannot come at the end:

    An annual sum, in return for which she agreed to give me house
    room (William Trevor)
    During which week will the festival be held?

    It would be unnatural to write Which she agreed to give me house room in
    return for, and Which week will the festival be held during?

    Conversely, some relative clauses will not allow the preposition to stand
    before the relative pronoun:

    The opposition (that) I ran up against was fierce
    A sort of world apart which one can quite easily go through life
    without ever hearing about (George Orwell)

    These cannot be changed to:

    The opposition against which I ran up...
    A sort of world apart without ever hearing about which...

    One should be guided by what sounds natural. There is no need to alter the
    position of the preposition merely in deference to the alleged rule.

 4.40 quantity, nouns of
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The numerals hundred, thousand, million, billion, trillion, and the words
    dozen and score are sometimes used in the singular and sometimes in the
    plural.

    1.  They always have the singular form if they are qualified by a
        preceding word, whether it is singular (e.g. a, one) or plural (e.g.
        many, several, two, three, etc.), and whether or not they are used
        attributively before a noun or with nothing following:

        A hundred days
        Three hundred will be enough
        I will take two dozen
        Two dozen eggs

         The use of the plural form after a plural qualifier and when nothing
        follows is incorrect:

        The population is now three millions (correctly three million)

        Although they have the singular form, they always take plural verbs,
        even after the indefinite article:

        There were about a dozen of them approaching (Anthony Powell)
        There were a score of them at a table apart (J. I. M. Stewart)

    2.  They take the plural form when they denote indefinite quantities.
        Usually they are followed by of or stand alone:

        Are there any errors?--Yes, hundreds
        He has dozens of friends
        Many thousands of people are homeless

 4.41 reflexive pronouns
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The reflexive pronouns are normally used to refer back to the subject of
    the clause or sentence in which they occur, e.g.

    I congratulated myself on outwitting everyone else
    Can't you do anything for yourself?

    Sometimes it is permissible to use a reflexive pronoun to refer to someone
    who is not the subject. Very often the person referred to may be the
    subject of a preceding or following clause, e.g.

    It was their success, both with myself and others, that confirmed
    me in what has since been my career (Evelyn Waugh)
    You have the feeling that all their adventures have happened to
    yourself (George Orwell)
    He was furious with the woman, with a rancorous anger that surprised
    himself (Joyce Cary)

    In each of the above, there is a nearby me, you, or he to which the
    reflexive refers, but to have written me, you, and him respectively in
    these sentences would not have been grammatically incorrect.

    A reflexive pronoun is often used after such words as

    as        but for        like
    as for    except         than
    but       except for

    E.g. For those who, like himself, felt it indelicate to raise an umbrella
    in the presence of death (Iris Murdoch)

    It can be a very useful way to avoid the difficult choice between I, he,
    she, etc. (which often sounds stilted) and me, him, her, etc. (which are
    grammatically incorrect) after the words as, but, and than, e.g.

    None of them was more surprised than myself that I'd spoken
    (Lynne Reid Banks)

    Here than I would be strictly correct, while than me would be informal.

    Naturally a reflexive pronoun cannot be used in the ways outlined above if
    confusion would result. One would not write:

    John was as surprised as himself that he had been appointed

    but would substitute the person's name, or he himself was, for himself, or
    recast the sentence.

 4.42 relative clauses
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A relative clause is a clause introduced by a relative pronoun and used to
    qualify a preceding noun or pronoun (called its antecedent), e.g.  The
    visitor (antecedent) whom (relative pronoun) you were expecting (remainder
    of relative clause) has arrived; He who hesitates is lost.

    Exceptionally, there are nominal relative clauses in which the antecedent
    and relative pronoun are combined in one wh-pronoun, e.g. What you need is
    a drink:  see what (relative pronoun).

     Relative clauses can be either restrictive or non-restrictive. A
    restrictive relative clause serves to restrict the reference of the
    antecedent, e.g. A suitcase which has lost its handle is useless. Here the
    antecedent suitcase is defined or restricted by the clause.

     A non-restrictive relative clause is used not to narrow the reference of
    the antecedent, but to add further information, e.g. He carried the
    suitcase, which had lost its handle, on one shoulder. Here the suitcase is
    already identified, and the relative clause adds explanatory information.

    Notice that no commas are used to mark off a restrictive relative clause
    from the rest of the sentence, but when, as above, a non-restrictive
    relative clause comes in the middle of the sentence, it is marked off by a
    comma at each end.

    There are two kinds of relative pronouns:
    (i) The wh-type: who, whom, whose, which, and, in nominal relative clauses
    only, what.
    (ii) The pronoun that (which can be omitted in some circumstances: see
    that (relative pronoun), omission of.

    When one relative clause is followed by another, the second relative
    pronoun

    (a) may or may not be preceded by a conjunction; and
    (b) may or may not be omitted.

    (a) A conjunction is not required if the second relative clause qualifies
    an antecedent which is a word inside the first relative clause:

    I found a firm which had a large quantity of components
    for which they had no use

    Here for which...use qualifies components which is part of the relative
    clause qualifying firm.  And or but should not be inserted before for
    which.

    But if the two clauses are parallel, both qualifying the same antecedent,
    a conjunction is required:

    Help me with these shelves which I have to take home but
    which will not fit in my car

    (b) The second relative pronoun can be omitted if (i) it qualifies the
    same antecedent as the first, and (ii) it plays the same part in its
    clause as the first (i.e. subject or object):

    George, who takes infinite pains and (who)
    never cuts corners, is our most dependable worker

    Here the second who qualifies the same antecedent (George) as the first
    who, and, like it, is the subject of its clause. It can therefore be
    omitted.

    But if the second relative pronoun plays a different part in its clause,
    it cannot be omitted:

    George, whom everybody likes but who rarely goes
    to a party, is shy

    Here the first relative pronoun, whom, is the object, the second, who, is
    the subject, in their clauses. The second relative pronoun must be kept.
    This rule applies even if the two pronouns have the same form; it is the
    function that counts:

    Like a child spelling out the letters of a word which he
    cannot read and which if he could would have meaning
    (Jean Rhys)

    The second which cannot be omitted.

    See also
    preposition at end,
    that (relative pronoun), omission of,
    what (relative pronoun),
    which or that (relative pronouns),
    who and whom (interrogative and relative pronouns),
    who or which (relative pronouns),
    whose or of which in relative clauses,
    who/whom or that (relative pronouns).

 4.43 shall and will
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    'The horror of that moment', the King went on, 'I shall never, never
    forget!' 'You will, though,' the Queen said, 'if you don't make a
    memorandum of it.' (Lewis Carroll)

    There is considerable confusion about when to use shall and will. Put
    simply, the traditional rule in standard British English is:

    1.  In the first person, singular and plural.

        a.  I shall, we shall express the simple future, e.g.

            I am not a manual worker and please God I never shall be one
            (George Orwell)
            In the following pages we shall see good words...losing
            their edge (C. S. Lewis)

        b.  I will, we will express intention or determination on the part of
            the speaker (especially a promise made by him or her), e.g.

            I will take you to see her tomorrow morning
            (P. G. Wodehouse)
            I will no longer accept responsibility for the fruitless
            loss of life (Susan Hill)
            'I don't think we will ask Mr. Fraser's opinion',
            she said coldly (V. S. Pritchett)

    2.  For the second and third persons, singular and plural, the rule is
        exactly the converse.

        a.  You, he, she, it, or they will express the simple future, e.g.

            Will it disturb you if I keep the lamp on for a bit?
            (Susan Hill)
            Seraphina will last much longer than a car. She'll probably
            last longer than you will (Graham Greene)

        b.  You, he, she, it, or they shall express intention or determination
            on the part of the speaker or someone other than the actual
            subject of the verb, especially a promise made by the speaker to
            or about the subject, e.g.

            Today you shall be with me in Paradise (NEB)
            One day you shall know my full story (Evelyn Waugh)
            Shall the common man be pushed back into the mud, or shall he not?
            (George Orwell)

    The two uses of will, and one of those of shall, are well illustrated by:

    'I will follow you to the ends of the earth,' replied
    Susan, passionately. 'It will not be necessary, said George.
    'I am only going down to the coal-cellar. I shall spend the
    next half-hour or so there.' (P. G. Wodehouse)

    In informal usage I will and we will are quite often used for the simple
    future, e.g.

    I will be a different person when I live in England
    (Character in work by Jean Rhys)

    More often the distinction is covered up by the contracted form 'll, e.g.

    I don't quite know when I'll get the time to write again
    (Susan Hill)

     The use of will for shall in the first person is not regarded as fully
    acceptable in formal usage.

 4.44 should and would
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    When used for (a) the future in the past or (b) the conditional,

    should goes with I and we
    would goes with you, he, she, it, and they

        a.  The future in the past. First person:

            I had supposed these to be the last...I should ever
            set eyes on (Anthony Powell)
            Julia and I, who had left..., thinking we should not
            return (Evelyn Waugh)

            The person's imagined statement or thought at the time was:

            These are the last I shall ever set eyes on
            We shall not return

            with shall, not will (see shall and will)

            Second and third persons:

            I told you that you would find Russian difficult to learn
            He was there. Later, he would not be there
            (Susan Hill)

            The person's statement or thought at the time was

            You will find Russian difficult to learn
            He will not be there

        b.  The conditional.

    First person:

    I should view with the strongest disapproval any proposal to
    abolish manhood suffrage (C. S. Lewis)
    If we had not hurried we should never have got a seat

    Second and third persons:

    If you cared about your work, you would make more effort
    Isobel would almost certainly have gone in any case
    (Anthony Powell)

    In informal usage, I would and we would are very common in both kinds of
    sentence:

    I wondered whether I would have to wear a black suit
    I would have been content, I would never have repeated it
    (Both examples from Graham Greene)

    The use of would with the first person is understandable, because should
    (in all persons) has a number of uses which can clash with the conditional
    and the future in the past; sometimes the context does not make it clear,
    for example, whether I should do means 'it would be the case that I did'
    or 'I ought to do', e.g.

    I wondered whether, when I was cross-examined
    I should admit that I knew the defendant

     This use of I would and we would is not, however, regarded as fully
    acceptable in formal language.

    See also I should or I would

 4.45 singular or plural
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  When subject and complement are different in number (i.e. one is
        singular, the other plural), the verb normally agrees with the
        subject, e.g.

        (Plural subject)
           Ships are his chief interest
           Their wages were a mere pittance
           Liqueur chocolates are our speciality

        The Biblical The wages of sin is death reflects an obsolete idiom by
        which wages took a singular verb.

        (Singular subject)
           The ruling passion of his life was social relationships
           What we need is customers
           Our speciality is liqueur chocolates

    2.  A plural word or phrase used as a name, title, or quotation counts as
        singular, e.g.

        Sons and Lovers has always been one of Lawrence's most popular novels
        Coloured persons is the term applied to those of mixed white and
        native blood

    3.  A singular phrase that happens to end with a plural word should
        nevertheless be followed by a singular verb, e.g.

        Everyone except the French wants (not want) Britain to join
        One in six has (not have) this problem

    See also -ics, nouns in, quantity, nouns of, -s plural or singular, what
    (relative pronoun).

 4.46 split infinitive
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The split infinitive is the name given to the separation of to from the
    infinitive by means of an adverb (or sometimes an adverbial phrase), e.g.
    He used to continually refer to the subject. In this the adverb
    continually splits the infinitive to refer into two parts.

    It is often said that an infinitive should never be split. This is an
    artificial rule that can produce unnecessarily contorted sentences.
    Rather, it is recommended that a split infinitive should be avoided by
    placing the adverb before or after the infinitive, unless this leads to
    clumsiness or ambiguity. If it does, one should either allow the split
    infinitive to stand, or recast the sentence.

    1.  Good writers usually avoid splitting the infinitive by placing the
        adverb before the infinitive:

        I am not able, and I do not want, completely to abandon
        the world-view that I acquired in childhood (George Orwell)

        One meets people who have learned actually to prefer the
        tinned fruit to the fresh (C. S. Lewis)

        He did not want positively to suggest that she was dominant
        (Iris Murdoch)

        On the other hand, it is quite natural in speech, and permissible in
        writing, to say:

        What could it be like to actually live in France?
        To really let the fact that these mothers were mothers sink in
        (Both examples from Kingsley Amis)
        Only one thing stops me from jumping up and screaming..., it is
        to deliberately think myself back into that hot light
        (Doris Lessing)

    2.  Avoidance of ambiguity.

        When an adverb closely qualifies the infinitive verb it may often be
        better to split the infinitive than to move the adverb to another
        position. The following example is ambiguous in writing, though in
        speech stress on certain words would make the meaning clear:

        It fails completely to carry conviction

        Either it means 'It totally fails...', in which case completely should
        precede fails, or it means ' It fails to carry complete conviction',
        in which case that should be written, or the infinitive should be
        split.

    3.  Avoidance of clumsiness.

        It took more than an excited elderly man...socially to
        discompose him...(Anthony Powell)

        In this example socially belongs closely with discompose: it is not
        'to discompose in a social way' but 'to cause social discomposure' or
        'to destroy social composure'. There are quite a number of adverb +
        verb collocations of this kind. When they occur in the infinitive, it
        may be better either to split the infinitive or to recast the sentence
        than to separate the adverb from the verb.

    4.  Unavoidable split infinitive.

        There are certain adverbial constructions which must immediately
        precede the verb and therefore split the infinitive, e.g. more than:

        Enough new ships are delivered to more than make up for
        the old ones being retired

        And a writer may have sound stylistic reasons for allowing a
        parenthetic expression to split an infinitive:

        It would be an act of gratuitous folly to, as he had put it to
        Mildred, make trouble for himself at this stage (Iris Murdoch)

 4.47 -s plural or singular
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Some nouns, though they have the plural ending -s, are nevertheless
    treated as singulars, taking singular verbs and pronouns referring back to
    them.

    1.  News

    2.  Diseases:

        measles        rickets
        mumps          shingles

        Measles and rickets can also be treated as ordinary plural nouns.

    3.  Games:

        billiards   dominoes    ninepins
        bowls       draughts    skittles
        darts       fives

    4.  Countries:

        the Bahamas        the Philippines
        the Netherlands    the United States

        These are treated as singular when considered as a unit, which they
        commonly are in a political context, or when the complement is
        singular, e.g.

        The Philippines is a predominantly agricultural country
        The United States has withdrawn its ambassador

        The Bahamas and the Philippines are also the geographical names of the
        groups of islands which the two nations comprise, and in this use can
        be treated as plurals, e.g.

        The Bahamas were settled by British subjects

        Flanders and Wales are always singular. So are the city names Athens,
        Brussels, Naples, etc.

    See also -ics, nouns in

 4.48 subjects joined by (either...) or
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    When two singular subjects (either may be a noun, a pronoun, or a noun
    phrase) are joined by or or either... or, the strict rule is that they
    require a singular verb and singular pronouns, since or (or either... or)
    indicates that only one of them is the logical subject:

    Either Peter or John has had his breakfast already
    A traffic warden or a policeman is always on the watch in this street

    However, 'at all times there has been a tendency to use the plural with
    two or more singular subjects when their mutual exclusion is not
    emphasized' (OED), e.g.

    On which rage or wantonness vented themselves (George Eliot)

    When one of the subjects joined by or is plural, it is best to put the
    verb in the plural, and place the plural subject nearer to the verb:

    Either the child or the parents are to blame

    When one subject is I, we, or you, and the other is a noun or a third
    person pronoun, or when the subjects are you and I, the verb is usually
    made to agree with the nearer of the two subjects:

    Either he or I am going to win
    Either he or you have got to give in
    Either you or your teacher has made a mistake

    This form of expression very often sounds awkward, especially when the
    sentence is a question:

    Am I or he going to win?
    Is he or we wrong?

    It is usually best to recast the sentence by adding another verb:

    Am I going to win, or is he?
    Is he wrong, or are we?
    Either he has got to give in, or you have

 4.49 subjunctive
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The subjunctive mood is indicated by the basic form of the verb, a form
    that is identical with the bare infinitive and imperative. In most verbs,
    e.g. do, give, and make, this will be the same as all the persons of the
    present tense except the third, which ends in -s. In the verb to be,
    however, the subjunctive is be, whereas the present tense is am, are, or
    is. For the past subjunctive of to be (were) see were or was

    The subjunctive is normal, and quite familiar, in a number of fixed
    expressions which cause no problems:

    Be that as it may
    Come what may
    God bless you
    God save the Queen
    Heaven help us
    Long live the Queen
    So be it
    Suffice it to say that
    Heaven forbid

    There are two other uses of the subjunctive that may cause difficulty, but
    they are entirely optional. This means that the ordinary user of English
    need not be troubled by the use of the subjunctive, apart from the past
    subjunctive were.

    1.  In that-clauses after words expressing command, hope, intention, wish,
        etc. Typical introducing words are

        be adamant that       propose that
        demand that           proposal that
        insist that           resolve that
        be insistent that     suggest that
        insistence that       suggestion that

        Typical examples are:

        He had been insisting that they keep the night of the
        twenty-second free (C. P. Snow)
        Joseph was insistent that his wishes be carried out
        (W. Somerset Maugham)
        Chance...dictated that l be reading Sterne when...Bellow's new
        novel arrived (Frederic Raphael)
        Your suggestion that I fly out (David Lodge)

        Until recently this use of the subjunctive was restricted to very
        formal language, where it is still usual, e.g.

        The Lord Chancellor put the motion that the House go into Committee

        It is, however, a usual American idiom, and is now quite acceptable in
        British English, but there is no necessity to use the subjunctive in
        such contexts. Should or may with the infinitive, or (especially in
        informal use) the ordinary indicative, depending on the context, will
        do equally well:

        Your demand that he should pay the money back surprised him
        I insist that the boy goes to school this minute

         Beware of constructions in which the sense hangs on a fine
        distinction between subjunctive and indicative, e.g.

        The most important thing for Argentina is that Britain recognize
        her sovereignty over the Falklands

        The implication is that Britain does not recognize it. A small slip
        that changed recognize to recognizes would disastrously reverse this
        implication. The use of should recognize would render the sense quite
        unmistakable.

    2.  In certain concessive and conditional clauses, i.e. clauses introduced
        by though and if, the subjunctive can be used to express reserve on
        the part of the speaker about an action or state which is contemplated
        or in prospect, e.g.

        Though he be the devil himself he shall do as I say
        Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow
        (Authorized Version)
        It is a fine thing if a man endure the pain of undeserved suffering (NEB)
        The University is a place where a poor man, if he be virtuous,
        may live a life of dignity and simplicity (A. C. Benson)
        If this be true, then we are all to blame

        As the examples show, this is restricted to very formal and exalted
        language. It should not be used in ordinary prose, where sometimes the
        indicative and sometimes an auxiliary such as may are entirely
        acceptable, e.g.

        Though he may be an expert, he should listen to advice
        If this is the case, then I am in error

 4.50 than, case following
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    A personal pronoun following than should have the case that it would have
    if a verb were supplied. In the following sentences, the subjective case
    is required because the personal pronoun would be the subject:

    Other people have failed to grasp this, people much cleverer than I
    (in full, than I am)
    We pay more rent than they (in full, than they do)

    In the sentence below, the objective case is used, because the pronoun
    would be the object if there were a verb:

    Jones treated his wife badly. I think that he liked his dog better
    than her (in full, than he liked her)

    Informal English permits the objective case to be used, no matter what
    case the pronoun would have if a verb were supplied:

    You do it very well. Much better than me

    This is unacceptable in formal usage. The preferred alternative, with the
    subjective, often sounds stilted. When this is so, it can be avoided by
    supplying the verb:

    We pay more rent than they do

    The interrogative and relative pronoun whom is always used after than,
    rather than the subjective form who:

    Professor Smith, than whom there is scarcely anyone better
    qualified to judge, believes it to be pre-Roman

 4.51 that (conjunction), omission of
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  The conjunction that introducing a noun clause and used after verbs of
        saying, thinking, knowing, etc., can often be omitted in informal
        usage:

        I told him (that) he was wrong
        He knew (that) I was right
        Are you sure (that) this is the place?

        Generally speaking, the omission of that confers a familiar tone on
        the sentence, and is not usually appropriate in formal prose.

        That should never be omitted if other parts of the sentence (apart
        from the indirect object) intervene:

        I told him, as I have told everyone, that he was wrong
        Are you sure in your own mind that this is the place?

        The omission of that makes it difficult, in written prose, to follow
        the sense.

    2.  When the conjunction that is part of the correlative pairs of
        conjunctions so...that and such... that, or of the compound
        conjunctions so that, now that, it can be omitted in informal usage.

         It should not be omitted in formal style:

        He walked so fast (or at such a speed) that
        I could not keep up
        I'll move my car so that you can park in the drive
        Are you lonely now that your children have left home?

 4.52 that (relative pronoun), omission of
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The relative pronoun that can often be omitted. Its omission is much more
    usual informally than formally.

    In formal contexts the omission of that is best limited to relative
    clauses which are fairly short and which stand next to their antecedents:

    The best thing (that) you can do is make up for lost time
    None of the cars (that) I saw had been damaged
    Nothing (that) I could say made any difference

    That cannot be omitted when it is the subject of the relative clause, e.g.

    Nothing that occurred to me made any difference
    None of the cars that were under cover had been damaged

    See also adverbial relative clauses and way, relative clause following.

 4.53 there is or there are
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    In a sentence introduced by there + part of the verb to be, the latter
    agrees in number with the noun, noun phrase, or pronoun which follows:

    There was a great deal to be said for this scheme
    There are many advantages in doing it this way

    In very informal language there is or there was is often heard before a
    plural:

    There's two coloured-glass windows in the chapel
    (Character in work by Evelyn Waugh)

     This is non-standard.

 4.54 to
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The preposition to can stand at the end of a clause or sentence as a
    substitute for an omitted to-infinitive, e.g.

    He had tried not to think about Emma..., but of course it was
    impossible not to (Iris Murdoch)
    I gave him her message, as I should have been obliged to
    if she had died (C. P. Snow)

    This is standard usage.

 4.55 unattached phrases
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    An adjectival or adverbial phrase, introducing a sentence, must qualify
    the subject of the sentence, e.g.

    While not entirely in agreement with the plan, he had no serious
    objections to it
    After two days on a life-raft, the survivors were rescued by helicopter

    The introductory phrases While...plan and After...life-raft qualify the
    subjects he and the survivors respectively.

    It is a common error to begin a sentence with a phrase of this kind,
    anticipating a suitable subject, and then to continue the sentence with a
    quite different subject, e.g.

    After six hours without food in a plane on the perimeter at Heathrow,
    the flight was cancelled

    The phrase After...Heathrow anticipates a subject like the passengers: a
    flight cannot spend six hours without food in a plane on an airport
    perimeter. Such a sentence should either have a new beginning, e.g.

    After the passengers had spent six hours...

    or a new main clause, e.g.

    After six hours  ...Heathrow, the passengers
    learnt that the flight had been cancelled

 4.56 used to
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The negative and interrogative of used to can be formed in two ways:

    (i) Negative: used not to
        Interrogative: used X to?

    This formation follows the pattern of the other auxiliary verbs.
    Examples:

    Used you to beat your mother? (G. B. Shaw)
    You used not to have a moustache, used you? (Evelyn Waugh)

    (ii) Negative: did not use to, didn't use to

         Interrogative: did X use to?

    This formation is the same as that used with regular verbs. Examples:

    She didn't use to find sex revolting (John Braine)
    Did you use to be a flirt? (Eleanor Farjeon)

    Either form is acceptable. On the whole used you to, used he to, etc.
    tend to sound rather stilted.

     The correct spellings of the negative forms are:


       usedn't to and didn't use to

     not:

       usen't to and didn't used to

 4.57 way, relative clause following
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    (The) way can be followed by a relative clause with or without that. There
    is no need for the relative clause to contain the preposition in:

    It may have been the way he smiled (Jean Rhys)
    Whatever way they happened would be an ugly way
    (Iris Murdoch)
    She couldn't give a dinner party the way the young lad's
    mother could (William Trevor)

 4.58 were or was
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is often confusion about whether to use the past subjunctive were or
    the past indicative was.

    Formal usage requires were

    1.  In conditional sentences where the condition is 'unreal', e.g.

        It would probably be more marked if the subject were
        more dangerous (George Orwell)
        (The condition is unreal because 'the subject' is not
        very 'dangerous' in fact)
        If anyone were to try to save me, I would refuse
        (Jean Rhys)
        (The condition is regarded as unlikely)

    2.  Following as if and as though, e.g.

        He wore it with an air of melancholy, as though it were
        court mourning (Evelyn Waugh)
        (For a permissible exception see as if, as though. in topic 3.0)

    3.  In that-clauses after to wish, e.g.

        I wish I were going instead of you

    4.  In the fixed expressions As it were, If I were you

    Notice that in all these constructions the clause with were refers to
    something unreal, something that in fact is not or will not be the case.

    Were may also be used in dependent questions, where there is doubt of the
    answer, e.g.

    Hilliard wondered whether Barton were not right after all
    (Susan Hill)
    Her mother suddenly demanded to know if she were pregnant
    (Joyce Cary)

    This is not obligatory even in very formal prose. Was is acceptable
    instead.

 4.59 we (with phrase following)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Expressions consisting of we or us followed by a qualifying word or
    phrase, e.g. we English, us English, are often misused with the wrong case
    of the first person plural pronoun. In fact the rules are exactly the same
    as for we or us standing alone.

    If the expression is the subject, we should be used:

     (Correct)   Not always laughing as heartily as
                 we English are supposed to do (J. B. Priestley)
     (Incorrect) We all make mistakes, even us
                 anarchists (Character in work by Alison Lurie)
                 (Substitute we anarchists)

    If the expression is the object or the complement of a preposition, us
    should be used:

     (Correct)   To us English, Europe is not a
                 very vivid conception
     (Incorrect) The Manchester Guardian has said some
                 nice things about we in the North-East

 4.60 what (relative pronoun)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    What can be used as a relative pronoun only when introducing nominal
    relative clauses, e.g.

    So much of what you tell me is strange, different from
    what I was led to expect (Jean Rhys)

    In this kind of relative clause, the antecedent and relative pronoun are
    combined in the one word what, which can be regarded as equivalent to that
    which or the thing(s) which.

     What cannot act as a relative pronoun qualifying an antecedent in
    standard English. This use is found only in non-standard speech, e.g.

    The young gentleman what's arranged everything
    (Character in work by Evelyn Waugh)

    A what-clause used as the subject of a sentence almost always takes a
    singular verb, even if there is plural complement, e.g.

    What one first became aware of was the pictures
    (J. I. M. Stewart)
    What interests him is less events...than the reverberations they set up
    (Frederic Raphael)

    Very occasionally the form of the sentence may under the plural more
    natural, e.g.

    What once were great houses are now petty offices
    I have few books, and what there are do not help me

 4.61 which or that (relative pronouns)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    There is a degree of uncertainty about whether to use which or that as the
    relative pronoun qualifying a non-personal antecedent (for personal
    antecedents see who/whom or that (relative pronouns).

    The general rule is that which is used in relative clauses to which the
    reader's attention is to be drawn, while that is used in clauses which
    mention what is already known or does not need special emphasis.

    Which is almost always used in non-restrictive clauses, i.e. those that
    add further information about an antecedent already defined by other words
    or the context. Examples:

    The men are getting rum issue, which they deserve (Susan Hill)
    Narrow iron beds with blue rugs on them, which Miss Fanshawe
    has to see are all kept tidy (William Trevor)

     The use of that in non-restrictive clauses should be avoided. It is not
    uncommon in informal speech, and is sometimes employed by good writers to
    suggest a tone of familiarity, e.g.

    Getting out of Alec's battered old car that looked
    as if it had been in collision with many rocks, Harold
    had a feeling of relief (L. P. Hartley)

    It should not, however, be used in ordinary prose.

    Both which and that can be used in restrictive relative clauses, i.e.
    clauses that limit or define the antecedent.

    There is no infallible rule to determine which should be used. Some
    guidelines follow:

    1.  Which preferred.

        a.  Clauses which add significant information often sound better with
            which, e.g.

            Was I counting on Israel to work some miracle which would
            give me the strength? (Lynne Reid Banks)
            Not nearly enough for the social position which they had
            to keep up (D. H. Lawrence)

        b.  Clauses which are separated from their antecedent, especially when
            separated by another noun, sound better with which, e.g.

            Larry told her the story of the young airman which I narrated
            at the beginning of this book (W.Somerset Maugham)

        c.  When a preposition governs the relative pronoun, which preceded by
            the preposition is often a better choice than that with the
            preposition at the end of the sentence (see also preposition at
            end),e,g.

            I'm telling you about a dream in which ordinary things
            are marvellous (William Trevor)
            (A dream that ordinary things are marvellous in would not
            sound natural)
            The inheritance to which we are born is one that nothing can
            destroy (NEB)
            (The inheritance that we are born to would sound very informal
            and unsuited to the context)

    2.  That preferred.

        In clauses that do not fall into the above categories that can usually
        be used. There is no reason to reject that if

        a.  the antecedent is impersonal,
        b.  the clause is restrictive,
        c.  no preposition precedes the relative pronoun, and
        d.  the sentence does not sound strained or excessively colloquial.

        Examples:

        I read the letters, none of them very revealing, that littered
        his writing table (Evelyn Waugh)
        He fell back on the old English courtesy that he had
        consciously perfected to combat the increasing irritability
        that came with old age and arthritis (Angus Wilson)

        In these examples, which would be acceptable, but is not necessary.

    When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun (e.g.  anything, everything,
    nothing, something) or contains a superlative adjective qualifying the
    impersonal antecedent (e.g. the biggest car, the most expensive hat)
    English idiom tends to prefer that to which:

    Is there nothing small that the children could buy you for
    Christmas?
    This is the most expensive hat that you could have
    bought

    Note that that can sometimes be used when one is not sure whether to use
    who or which:

    This was the creature, neither child nor woman, that drove
    me through the dusk that summer evening (Evelyn Waugh)

 4.62 who and whom (interrogative and relative pronouns)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  Formal usage restricts the use of the interrogative and relative
        pronoun who to the subject of the clause only, e.g.

        I who'd never read anything before but the newspaper
        (W. Somerset Maugham)

        When the pronoun is the object or the complement of a preposition,
        whom must be used:

        Why are we being served by a man whom neither of us likes?
        (William Trevor)
        The real question is food (or freedom) for whom
        (C. S. Lewis)
        A midget nobleman to whom all doors were open
        (Evelyn Waugh)

         The use of who as object or prepositional complement is acceptable
        informally, but should not be carried over into serious prose, e.g.

        Who are you looking for?
        The person who I'm looking for is rather elusive

        See also than, case following

    2.  Whom for who.

        Whom is sometimes mistakenly used for who because the writer believes
        it to be the object, or the complement of a preposition.

        a.  For the interrogative pronoun the rule is: the case of the pronoun
            who/whom is determined by its role in the interrogative clause,
            not by any word in the main clause:

            He never had any doubt about who was the real credit to the
            family (J. I. M. Stewart)

            Who here is the subject of was. One should not be confused by
            about, which governs the whole clause, not who alone.

            The error is seen in:

            Whom among our poets...could be called one of the
            interior decorators of the 1950s?
            (Read Who..because it is the subject of the passive verb be
            called)

            Whom is correct in:

            He knew whom it was from (L. P. Hartley)
            (Here whom is governed by from)
            Whom he was supposed to be fooling, he couldn't imagine (David Lodge)
            (Here whom is the object of fooling)

        b.  For the relative pronoun, when followed by a parenthetic clause
            such as they say, he thinks, I believe, etc., the rule is: the
            case of the pronoun who/whom is determined by the part it plays in
            the relative clause if the parenthetic statement is omitted:

            Sheikh Yamani who they say is the richest man in the Middle East

            (Not whom they say since who is the subject of is, not the object
            of say)

            But whom is correct in:

            Sheikh Yamani whom they believe to be the richest man in
            the Middle East

            Here they believe is not parenthetic, since it could not be
            removed leaving the sentence intact. Whom is its object:  the
            simple clause would be They believe him to be the richest man.

    See also I who, you who, etc.

 4.63 who or which (relative pronouns)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    If a wh-pronoun is used to introduce a relative clause it must be who
    (whom) if the antecedent is personal, e.g.

    Suzanne was a woman who had no notion of reticence
    (W. Somerset Maugham)

    But it must be which if the antecedent is non-personal.  e.g.

    There was a suppressed tension about her which made me
    nervous (Lynne Reid Banks)

    If the relative clause is non-restrictive, i.e. it adds significant new
    information about an antecedent already defined, the wh-type of pronoun
    must be used (as above).

    If the relative clause is restrictive, i.e. it defines or limits the
    reference of the antecedent, one can use either the appropriate wh-pronoun
    (as indicated above), or the non-variable pronoun that. For guidance about
    this choice see which or that (relative pronouns), who/whom or that
    (relative pronouns).

 4.64 whose or of which in relative clauses
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The relative pronoun whose can be used as the possessive of which, i.e.
    with reference to a non-personal antecedent, just as much as it can as the
    possessive of who. The rule sometimes enunciated that of which must always
    be used after a non-personal antecedent should be ignored, as it is by
    good writers, e.g.

    The little book whose yellowish pages she knew
    (Virginia Woolf)
    A robe whose weight and stiff folds expressed her repose
    (Evelyn Waugh)
    A narrow side street, whose windows had flower boxes and
    painted shutters (Doris Lessing)

    In some sentences, of which would he almost impossible, e.g.

    The lawns about whose closeness of cut his father worried
    the gardener daily (Susan Hill)

    There is, of course, no rule prohibiting of which if it sounds natural,
    e.g.

    A little town the name of which I have forgotten
    (W. Somerset Maugham)

    Whose can only be used as the non-personal possessive in relative clauses.
    Interrogative whose refers only to persons, as in Whose book is this?

 4.65 who/whom or that (relative pronouns)
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    In formal usage, who/whom is always acceptable as the relative pronoun
    following an antecedent that denotes a person.  (For the choice between
    who and whom see who and whom (interrogative and relative pronouns).

    In non-restrictive relative clauses, i.e. those which add significant new
    information about an antecedent already defined, who/whom is obligatory,
    e.g.

    It was not like Coulter, who was a cheerful man
    (Susan Hill)

    In restrictive relative clauses, i.e those which define or limit the
    reference of the antecedent, who/whom is usually quite acceptable:

    The masters who taught me Divinity told me that biblical
    texts were highly untrustworthy (Evelyn Waugh)

    It is generally felt that the relative pronoun that is more impersonal
    than who/whom, and is therefore slightly depreciatory if applied to a
    person. Hence it tends to be avoided in formal usage.

    However, if

    (i) the relative pronoun is the object, and
    (ii) the personality of the antecedent is suppressed

    that may well be appropriate, e.g.

    Then the woman that they actually caught and  pinned down
    would not have been Margot (Evelyn Waugh)
    They looked now just like the GIs that one saw in Viet Nam
    (David Lodge)

    Informally that is acceptable with any personal antecedent, e.g.

    You got it from the man that stole the horse
    (G.B.Shaw)
    Honey, it's me that should apologize
    (David  Lodge)

     This should be avoided in formal style.

 4.66 you and I or you and me
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    When a personal pronoun is linked by and or or to a noun or another
    pronoun there is often confusion about which case to put the pronoun in.
    In fact the rule is exactly as it would be for the pronoun standing alone.

    1.  If the two words linked by and or or constitute the subject, the
        pronoun should be in the subjective case, e.g.

        Only she and her mother cared for the old house
        That's what we would do, that is, John and I
        Who could go?--Either you or he

        The use of the objective case is quite common informal speech, but it
        is non-standard, e.g. examples from the speech of characters in
        novels)

        Perhaps only her and Mrs Natwick had stuck to the
        christened name (Patrick White)
        That's how we look at it, me and Martha
        (Kingsley Amis)
        Either Mary had to leave or me (David Lodge)

        If the two words linked by and or or constitute the object of the
        verb, or the complement of a reposition, the objective case must be
        used:

        The afternoon would suit her and John better
        It was time for Sebastian and me to go down to  the
        drawing-room (Evelyn Waugh)

    The use of the subjective case is very common formally. It probably arises
    from an exaggerated fear of the error indicated under 1 above.

     It remains, however, non-standard, e.g.

    It was this that set Charles and I talking of old times
    Why is it that people like you and I are so unpopular?
    (Character in work by William Trevor)
    Between you and I

    This last expression is very commonly heard. Between you and me should
    always be substituted.

 A.0 Appendix A.  Principles of Punctuation
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-



 A.1 apostrophe
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  Used to indicate the possessive case: see possessive case

    2.  Used to mark an omission, e.g.  e'er, we'll, he's, '69.

     Sometimes written, but unnecessary, in a number of curtailed words, e.g.
    bus, cello, flu, phone, plane (not 'bus, etc.).  See also plural
    formation.

 A.2 brackets
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    See:

    1.  parentheses

    2.  square brackets

 A.3 colon
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  Links two grammatically complete clauses, but marks a step forward,
        from introduction to main theme, from cause to effect, or from premiss
        to conclusion, e.g. To commit sin is to break God's law: sin, in fact,
        is lawlessness.

    2.  Introduces a list of items (a dash should not be added), e.g. The
        following were present: J. Smith, J.  Brown, P. Thompson, M. Jones. It
        is used after such expressions as for example, namely, the following,
        to resume, to sum up.

 A.4 comma
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The least emphatic separating mark of punctuation, used:

    1.  Between adjectives which each qualify a noun in the same way, e.g.  A
        cautious, eloquent man.

        But when adjectives qualify the noun in different ways, or when one
        adjective qualifies another, no comma is used, e.g. A distinguished
        foreign author, a bright red tie.

    2.  To separate items (including the last) in a list of more than two
        items, e.g. Potatoes, peas, and carrots; Potatoes, peas, or carrots;
        Potatoes, peas, etc.; Red, white, and blue.

         But A black and white TV set.

    3.  To separate co-ordinated main clauses, e.g. Cars will turn here, and
        coaches will go straight on. But not when they are closely linked,
        e.g. Do as I tell you and you'll never regret it.

    4.  To mark the beginning and end of a parenthetical word or phrase, e.g.
        I am sure, however, that it will not happen; Fred, who is bald,
        complained of the cold.

         Not with restrictive relative clauses, e.g. Men who are bald should
        wear hats.

    5.  After a participial or verbless clause, a salutation, or a vocative,
        e.g. Having had breakfast, I went for a walk; The sermon over, the
        congregation filed out or The sermon being over, (etc.); My son, give
        me thy heart.

         Not The sermon, being over, (etc.)

         No comma with expressions like My friend Lord X or My son John.

    6.  To separate a phrase or subordinate clause from the main clause so as
        to avoid misunderstanding, e.g. In the valley below, the villages
        looked very small; He did not go to church, because he was playing
        golf; In 1982, 1918 seemed a long time ago.

         A comma should not be used to separate a phrasal subject from its
        predicate, or a verb from an object that is a clause: A car with such
        a highpowered engine, should not let you down and They believed, that
        nothing could go wrong are both incorrect.

    7.  Following words introducing direct speech, e.g. They answered, 'Here
        we are.'

    8.  Following Dear Sir, Dear John, etc., in letters, and after Yours
        sincerely, etc.

     No comma is needed between month and year in dates, e.g. In December
    1982 or between number and road in addresses, e.g. 12 Acacia Avenue.

 A.5 dash
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  The en rule is distinct (in print) from the hyphen (see hyphens and is
        used to join pairs or groups of words wherever movement or tension,
        rather than cooperation or unity, is felt: it is often equivalent to
        to or versus, e.g.  The 1914-18 war; current-voltage characteristic;
        The London-Horsham-Brighton route; The Fischer-Spassky match; The
        Marxist-Trotskyite split.

         Note The Marxist-Leninist position; The Franco-Prussian war with
        hyphens.

        It is also used for joint authors, e.g. The Lloyd-Jones hypothesis
        (two men), distinct from The Lloyd-Jones hypothesis (one man with
        double-barrelled name).

    2.  The em rule (the familiar dash) is used to mark an interruption in the
        structure of a sentence. A pair of them can be used to enclose a
        parenthetic remark or to make the ending and resumption of a statement
        interrupted by an interlocutor; e.g.  He was not--you may disagree
        with me, Henry--much of an artist; 'I didn't--' 'Speak up, boy!'--hear
        anything; I was just standing near by.' It can be used informally to
        replace the colon (use 1).

 A.6 exclamation mark
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Used after an exclamatory word, phrase, or sentence. It usually counts as
    the concluding full stop, but need not, e.g. Hail source of Being!
    universal Soul! It may also be used within square brackets, after a
    quotation, to express the editor's amusement, dissent, or surprise.

 A.7 full stop
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  Used at the end of all sentences which are not questions or
        exclamations. The next word should normally begin with a capital
        letter.

    2.  Used after abbreviations: see abbreviationsIf a point making an
        abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, it also serves as the
        closing full stop, e.g. She also kept dogs, cats, birds, etc. but She
        also kept pets (dogs, cats, birds, etc.).

    3.  When a sentence concludes with a quotation which itself ends with a
        full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark, no further full stop is
        needed, e.g. He cried 'Be off!' But the child would not move.  But if
        the quotation is a short statement, and the introducing sentence has
        much greater weight, the full stop is put outside the quotation marks,
        e.g. Over the entrance to the temple at Delphi were written the words
        'know thyself'.

 A.8 hyphen:
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    see hyphens

 A.9 parentheses
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Enclose:

    1.  Interpolations and remarks made by the writer of the text himself,
        e.g. Mr. X (as I shall call him) now spoke.

    2.  An authority, definition, explanation, reference, or translation.

    3.  In the report of a speech, interruptions by the audience.

    4.  Reference letters or figures (which do not then need a full stop),
        e.g. (1), (a).

 A.10 period:
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    see full stop

 A.11 question mark
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  Follows every question which expects a separate answer. The next word
        should begin with a capital letter.

         Not used after indirect questions, e.g. He asked me why I was there.

    2.  May be placed before a word, etc., whose accuracy is doubted, e.g. T.
        Tallis ?1505-85.

 A.12 quotation marks
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    1.  Single quotation marks are used for a first quotation; double for a
        quotation within this; single again for a further quotation inside
        that.

    2.  The closing quotation mark should come before all punctuation marks
        unless these form part of the quotation itself, e.g. Did Nelson really
        say 'Kiss me, Hardy'? but Then she asked 'What is your name?' (see
        also full stop 3 in topic A.7).

        The comma at the end of a quotation, when words such as he said
        follow, is regarded as equivalent to the final full stop of the
        speaker's utterance, and is kept inside the quotation, e.g. 'That is
        nonsense,' he said. The commas on either side of he said, etc., when
        these words interrupt the quotation, should be outside the quotation
        marks, e.g.  'That', he said, 'is nonsense.' But the first comma goes
        inside the quotation marks if it would be part of the utterance even
        if there were no interruption, e.g. 'That, my dear fellow,' he said,
        'is nonsense.'

    3.  Quotation marks (and roman type) are used when citing titles of
        articles in magazines, chapters of books, poems not published
        separately, and songs.

         Not for titles of books of the Bible; nor for any passage that
        represents only the substance of an extract, or has any grammatical
        alterations, and is not a verbatim quotation.

        Titles of books and magazines are usually printed in italic.

 A.13 semicolon
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Separates those parts of a sentence between which there is a more distinct
    break than would call for a comma, but which are too closely connected to
    be made into separate sentences. Typically these will be clauses of
    similar importance and grammatical construction, e.g. To err is human; to
    forgive, divine.

 A.14 square brackets
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    Enclose comments, corrections, explanations, interpolations, notes, or
    translations, which were not in the original text, but have been added by
    subsequent authors, editors, or others, e.g. My right honourable friend
    [John Smith] is mistaken.

 B.0 Appendix B.  Clichs and Modish and Inflated Diction
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

    A clich is a phrase that has become worn out and emptied of meaning by
    over-frequent and careless use.  Never to use clichs at all would be
    impossible: they are too common, and too well embedded in the fabric of
    the language. On many occasions they can be useful in communicating simple
    ideas economically, and are often a means of conveying general
    sociability.  When writing serious prose, however, in which clear and
    precise communication is intended, one should guard against allowing
    clichs to do the work which the words of one's own choosing could do
    better.  'Modish and inflated diction' is a rough and ready way of
    referring to a body of words and phrases that is familiar, but hard to
    delineate and delimit.  In origin some of these expressions are often
    scientific or technical and are, in their original context, assigned a
    real and useful meaning; others are the creation of popular writers and
    broadcasters.  What they all have in common is their grip on the popular
    mind, so that they have come to be used in all kinds of general contexts
    where they are unnecessary, ousting ordinary words that are better but
    sound less impressive. As their popularity and frequency increases, so
    their real denotative value drains away, a process that closely resembles
    monetary inflation. As with clichs, it would be difficult, and not
    necessarily desirable, to ban these expressions from our usage completely,
    but, again, one should carefully guard against using them either because
    they sound more learned and up to date than the more commonplace words in
    one's vocabulary, or as a short cut in communicating ideas that would be
    better set out in simple, clear, basic vocabulary.

    The list that follows does not claim to be an exhaustive collection of
    clichs or of modish diction, but presents some contemporary expressions
    which are most frequently censured and are avoided by good writers.

    actual (tautologous or meaningless,
                        e.g. Is this an actual Roman coin?)
    actually (as a filler, e.g. Actually it's time I was going)
    articulate (verb = express)
    at the end of the day
    at this moment (or point) in time
    -awareness (e.g. brand-awareness)
    ball game (a different, etc., -)
    basically (as a filler)
    by and large (sometimes used with no meaning)
    -centred (e.g. discovery-centred)
    conspicuous by one's absence
    constructive (used tautologously, e.g. A constructive suggestion)
    definitely
    -deprivation (e.g. status-deprivation)
    dialogue
    dimension (= feature, factor)
    -directed (e.g. task-directed)
    dispense (= give)
    environment
    escalate (= increase, intensify)
    eventuate (= result)
    framework (in the framework of)
    fresh (= new, renewed, etc.)
    grind to a halt (= end, stop)
    identify (= find, discover)
    if you like (explanatory tag)
    integrate, integrated
    in terms of
    in the order of (= about)
    in this day and age
    -ize (suffix, forming vogue words, e.g. normalize,
                        permanentize, prioritize, respectabilize)
    leave severely alone
    life-style
    look closely at
    loved ones (= relatives)
    low profile (keep, or maintain, a-)
    massive(= huge)
    matrix
    meaningful (can often be omitted without any change in meaning)
    methodology (= method)
    -minded (e.g. company-minded)
    name of the game, the
    -oriented (e.g. marketing-oriented)
    overkill
    participate in
    persona (= character)
    proliferation (= a number)
    proposition
    quantum jump
    real (especially in very real)
    -related (e.g. church-related)
    simplistic (= oversimplified)
    sort of (as a filler)
    spell (= mean, involve)
    target (figuratively used)
    terminate (= end)
    totality of, the
    track-record (= record)
    until such time as
    utilize (= use)
    viability
    vibrant
    you know (as a filler)
    you name it

    See also the entries in Vocabulary for:

    antithetical              hopefully                ongoing
    author                    impact                   overly
    aware                     industrial action        overview
    character                 interface                parameter
    crucial                   ironic                   pivotal
    decimate                  limited                  predicate
    dichotomy                 literally                pre-empt
    differential              locate                   pristine
    dilemma                   maximize                 proportion
    event (in the             nature                   region (in the
      event that)                                        region of)
    excess (in excess of)     neighbourhood (in the    scenario
                                neighborhood of)
    exposure                  no way                   situation
    feasible                  obligate                 substantial
    following

 C.0 Appendix C.  English Overseas
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

    Outside the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, English is an
    important language in many countries, and the major language of four-the
    United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand-and of a large minority
    in another, South Africa.  Despite the great distances separating these
    five English-speaking communities from each other and from the British
    Isles, and the great social and cultural differences between them, the
    forms of English which they use remain mutually intelligible to a
    remarkable degree.  Partly this is because all English-speaking
    communities have held to a standard spelling system. There are a number of
    points of difference in spelling between the English of the United States
    and that of Britain (the other communities follow the British mode, except
    that many US spellings are usual, or acceptable, in Canada); but these are
    all relatively minor.  The major differences are in pronunciation,
    vocabulary, and, to a lesser degree, grammar.


 C.1 1. The United States
 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-


    The main differences between General American pronunciation and British
    Received Pronunciation are set out on pp. 78-9. The General American
    accent is a supra-regional way of speaking acceptable throughout the
    country, but there are very marked differences of accent between different
    regions of the United States.  Two varieties familiar in Great Britain are
    'Brooklynese' (the New York City accent), in which earl and oil sound
    alike (the sound is somewhere between the two), and the southern 'drawl'
    (the accent of the states from Virginia southward) in which I and time
    sound like ah and tahm.

    The difference in vocabulary between American and British English is too
    well known to need extensive illustration. Most British people are
    familiar with many American equivalents for British terms, e.g.  bathrobe
    (dressing gown), checkers (draughts), cookie (biscuit), elevator (lift),
    flyer (handbill), gas (petrol), vest (waistcoat). It is not so often
    realized that many words and phrases now normal in Britain originated in
    North America, e.g. to fall for, to fly off the handle, off-beat, punch
    line, quiz (as a noun), round trip, round-up, to snoop. Nor is it fully
    realized how many words and phrases used every day in the United States
    are unknown, or nearly so, in Britain, and show no sign of being adopted
    here.  Many, but not all, are colloquial, e.g. realtor (estate agent),
    rotunda (concourse), running gear (vehicle's wheels and axles), sassy
    (cheeky), scam (fraud), scofflaw (habitual law-breaker), to second-guess
    (be wise after the event), tacky (seedy, tatty). Many words have slightly
    different meanings in the United States, e.g.  jelly (jam), mean (nasty,
    not stingy), nervy (impudent, not nervous). Some familiar words have a
    slightly different form, e.g. behoove, crawfish, dollhouse, math,
    normalcy, rowboat, sanitarium (British sanatorium), tidbit.  There are
    some notable differences between American and British grammar and
    construction, e.g. aside from (apart from), back of (behind), different
    than, in school, most (almost), protest (protest against), some (to some
    extent), through (up to and including); he ordered them arrested, I just
    ate (I have just eaten), to teach school, on the street, a quarter of ten.

    While, therefore, the formal and literary varieties of British and
    American English are mutually intelligible, the most colloquial spoken
    varieties of each are in some ways very different, and each can, in some
    contexts, be almost incomprehensible to a speaker of the other.

 C.2 2. Canada
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    Canadian English is subject to the conflicting influences of British and
    American English. On the whole British English has a literary influence,
    while American has a spoken one.  The Canadian accent is in most respects
    identical with General American. But where British English has four vowels
    in (i) bat, (ii) dance, father, (iii) hot, long, (iv) law, and General
    American three, Canadian has only two: bat and dance with a front a, and
    father, hot, long, and law with a back ah-sound.  Peculiar to the Canadian
    accent is a distinction between two varieties of the I-sound and two of
    the ow-sound:  light does not have the same vowel as lied, nor lout as
    loud.  Canadians pronounce some words in the American way, e.g. dance,
    half, clerk, tomato, but others in the British way, e.g.  lever, ration,
    process, lieutenant, and the name of the letter Z.  Some American
    spellings have caught on, e.g. honor, jail, plow, program, tire, but many,
    such as -er in words like center, single I in traveled, jeweler, and the
    short ax, catalog, check, have not.  In vocabulary there is much US
    influence: Canadians use billboard, gas, truck, wrench rather than
    hoarding, petrol, lorry, spanner; but on the other hand, they agree with
    the British in using blinds, braces, porridge, tap, rather than shades,
    suspenders, oatmeal, faucet.  The Canadian vocabulary, like the American,
    reflects the contact between English and various American Indian peoples,
    e.g.  pekan (a kind of weasel), sagamite (broth or porridge), saskatoon (a
    kind of bush, or its berry). It also reflects close contact with the large
    French-speaking community of Canada and with Eskimo peoples, e.g.
    aboiteau (dike), inconnu (a kind of fish), to mush (travel by dog-sled);
    chimo (an Eskimo greeting), kuletuk (a garment resembling a parka). And as
    there have been different degrees of settlement by the various non-
    English-speaking European nationalities in Canada than in the United
    States, so the range of European loan-words in Canadian English is
    markedly different, many American colloquialisms being unknown.  On the
    other hand, there are several regional dialects that differ markedly from
    the standard language, notably that of Newfoundland.

 C.3 3. Australia and New Zealand
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    There are no important differences in written form between the English of
    Great Britain and that of Australia, New Zealand, or indeed South Africa.
    The literary language of the four communities is virtually identical.
    Grammatically, too, the English of all four is uniform, except that each
    has developed its own colloquial idioms. Thus it is in the everyday spoken
    language that the main differences lie. The Australian accent is marked by
    a number of divergences from the British. (i) The vowels of fleece, face,
    price, goose, goat, and mouth all begin with rather open, slack sounds not
    unlike those used in Cockney speech. (ii) The vowels of dress, strut,
    start, dance, nurse have a much closer, tighter, more fronted sound than
    in RP. (iii) In unstressed syllables, typically -es or -ed (boxes,
    studded), where RP would have a sound like i in pin, Australian English
    has a sound like e in open or a in comma. (iv) In unstressed syllables,
    typically -y, or -ie + consonant (study, studied), where RP has the sound
    of i in pin, Australian English has a close -ee sound, as in tree. The
    result of (iii) and (iv) is that in Australia boxes and boxers sound the
    same, but studded and studied, which are the same in RP, sound different.
    (v) -t- between vowels, and l, are often sounded rather as they are in
    American English.  A number of individual words are differently
    pronounced, e.g. aquatic and auction with an o sound as in hot in the
    stressed syllable; Melbourne with a totally obscured second syllable, but
    Queensland with a fully pronounced one (the reverse of the RP).
    Australian vocabulary reflects, of course, the very different nature of
    the landscape, climate, natural history, and way of life. Familiar English
    words like brook, dale, field, and forest are unusual, whereas bush,
    creek, paddock, and scrub are normal.  There are of course a large number
    of terms (often compounded from English elements) for the plants and
    animals peculiar to the country, e.g. blue gum, stringybark (plants),
    flathead, popeye mullet (fish). The borrowings from Aboriginal languages
    hardly need extensive illustration; many are familiar in Britain, e.g.
    billabong, boomerang, budgerigar, didgeridoo, wallaby. Many of them have
    taken on transferred meanings and have lost their Aboriginal associations,
    e.g. gibber (boulder, stone), mulga (an inhospitable region), warrigal
    (wild, untamed person or animal).  But above all it is in the colloquial
    language that Australian English differs from British. Not only are there
    terms relating to Australian life and society, e.g. jackaroo, rouse-about,
    walkabout, but ordinary terms, e.g. to chiack (tease), crook (bad,
    irritable, ill), dinkum, furphy (rumour), to smoodge (fawn, caress);
    formations and compounds like those ending in -o (e.g. arvo (afternoon),
    Commo (communist), smoko (teabreak)); to overland, ratbag (eccentric,
    troublemaker), ropeable (angry); and expressions like come the raw prawn,
    she'll be right, have a shingle short. While it is true that many
    Australianisms are known in Britain, and form the basis of various kinds
    of humorous entertainment, and while British English has borrowed some
    Australian vocabulary (e.g. the verb to barrack or the noun walkabout),
    there is yet a wide gap between the popular spoken forms of the two kinds
    of English.

    The gap is less wide in the case of New Zealand English, where British
    influence has on the whole remained stronger. To a British ear, the New
    Zealand accent is hardly distinguishable from the Australian.  Its main
    peculiarities are: (i) i as in kit is a very slack sound almost like a in
    cadet; (ii) a as in trap and e as in dress are almost like British e in
    pep and i in this; (iii) the vowels of square and near are very tense and
    close, and may even be sounded alike; (iv) the vowels of smooth and nurse
    are sounded forward in the mouth, and rather close.  The chief differences
    between New Zealand and Australian English are lexical. The words of
    aboriginal origin are mostly unknown in New Zealand, while the New Zealand
    words drawn from Maori are unknown in Australia. Many of the latter,
    naturally, refer to natural history and landscape specific to the country,
    e.g. bid-a-bid (kind of plant), cockabully, tarakihi (kinds of fish),
    pohutukawa (kind of tree).  There is a large everyday vocabulary, much of
    it, but by no means all, colloquial or slang, used neither in Britain nor
    in Australia, e.g.  booay (remote rural district), greenstone (stone used
    for ornaments), return to the mat (resume Maori way of life), shake
    (earthquake), tar-sealed (surfaced with tar macadam), Taranaki gate (gate
    made of wire strands attached to upright battens).  While a fair amount of
    colloquial vocabulary is shared by Australia and New Zealand (e.g. sheila,
    Pommy, paddock (field), shout (to treat to drinks)), there are important
    nuances.  In both to bach is to live as a bachelor, but in New Zealand
    only is there a noun bach, a small beach or holiday house. Similar
    organizations are the RSA (Returned Servicemen's Association) in New
    Zealand, but the RSL (Returned Servicemen's League) in Australia: the
    initials of the one would be meaningless to a member of the other.  Mopoke
    or morepork is the name for a kind of owl in New Zealand, but for either a
    nightjar, or a different kind of owl, in Australia.

 C.4 4. South Africa
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    English is one of the two official languages of the Republic of South
    Africa, the other being Afrikaans (derived from Dutch, but now an entirely
    independent language).  Afrikaans has had a fairly strong influence on the
    English of the Republic: the South African accent is distinctly 'clipped';
    r is often rolled, and the consonants p, t, and k have a sharper
    articulation, usually lacking the aspiration (a faint h sound) found in
    other varieties of English.  I is sometimes very lax (like a in along),
    e.g. in bit, lip, at other times very tense (like ee), e.g. in kiss, big;
    the vowels of dress, trap, square, nurse are very tense and close, while
    that of part is very far back almost like port.  As in the other forms of
    English of the Southern Hemisphere, the different landscape, flora and
    fauna, and way of life are reflected in the South African vocabulary, e.g.
    dorp (village), go-away bird, kopje, nartjie (tangerine), rand,
    rhenosterbos (a kind of plant), roman, snoek (both fish), springbok, stoep
    (veranda), veld.  There are many loan-words from Afrikaans and African
    languages, e.g.  (besides most of those above) braai (barbecue), donga
    (eroded watercourse), erf (building plot), gogga (insect), impala (kind of
    antelope), indaba (meeting for discussion), lekker (nice), rondavel (hut).
    There are also many general colloquial words and phrases, e.g.  the farm
    (the country), homeboy (African from one's own area), location (Black
    township), robot (traffic light), tackies (plimsolls).  Some of these
    reflect the influence of Afrikaans idiom, e.g. to come there (arrive),
    just now (in a little while), land (a field), to wait on (wait for). Only
    a few words have entered the main stream of English, but they are
    important ones, including apartheid, commandeer, commando, laager, trek,
    and the slang scoff (to eat; food).

    The spoken language of each of the main English-speaking communities, as
    well as of the smaller communities scattered around the world, manifests
    enormous differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiom. The relative
    uniformity of the written, and especially the literary, language, stands
    in tension with this.  The outcome is a world language of unparalleled
    richness and variety.
